Use of Listeria vaccine vectors to reverse vaccine unresponsiveness in parasitically infected individuals

ABSTRACT

This invention relates to methods of using a  Listeria  vaccine vector to induce a Th1 immune response in subjects having persistent Th2 immune response profiles.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a National Phase Application of PCT International Application No. PCT/US11/54613, International Filing Date Oct. 3, 2011, claiming priority to U.S. provisional application No. 61/388,822, filed Oct. 1, 2010, and to U.S. provisional application No. 61/409,730, filed Nov. 3, 2010. These applications are hereby incorporated in their entirety by reference herein.

GOVERNMENT INTEREST STATEMENT

This invention was made with the support from the government of the United States under grant number(s) AI071883 and AI036657, awarded by National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to methods of using a Listeria vaccine vector to induce a Th1 immune response in subjects having persistent Th2 immune response profiles due to persistent parasitic infections.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Malaria, TB and HIV-1 remain tremendous disease burdens in much of the world's population. Despite decades of effort, there are no vaccines for malaria or HIV-1. Sub-Saharan populations are those that will benefit most from vaccines for malaria, TB and HIV-1. The majority of individuals in sub-Saharan countries, with prevalence exceeding 90% in many areas of Africa, are infected with one or more species of parasitic helminths that suppress immune responses, skew the host immune system of human and animals to T-helper type 2 (Th2), and suppress vaccine-specific responses. Therefore, there is a potential that helminth infected populations may not generate the desired immune responses to vaccines designed to drive Th1-type and cytotoxic T-cell responses. Previous work has shown that a naked DNA vaccine for HIV-1 was unable to generate antigen-specific T cell mediated immune responses unless helminth infection was eliminated prior to vaccination (Da'dara et al., Vaccine. 2010 Feb. 3; 28(5):1310-7. Epub 2009 Nov. 24, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety).

It is clearly important to HIV and other prevalent infectious diseases vaccine development for the developing world, to find a vaccine that will drive significant vaccine-specific Th1 immune responses in parasitically infected recipients.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, the invention relates to a method of inducing a Th1 immune response in a subject having a persistent Th2 phenotypic profile, the method comprising the step of administering to said subject a therapeutically effective dose of a Listeria vaccine vector.

In another aspect, the invention relates to a method of inducing a Th1 immune response against an infectious disease in a subject having a persistent Th2 phenotypic profile, the method comprising the step of administering to said subject a therapeutically effective dose of a Listeria vaccine vector, wherein the Listeria vaccine vector expresses and secretes an infectious disease antigen fused to an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby inducing a Th1 immune response in said subject.

In one aspect, the invention relates to a method of treating an infectious disease in a subject having a persistent Th2 phenotypic profile, the method comprising the step of administering to said subject a therapeutically effective dose of a Listeria vaccine vector, wherein the Listeria vaccine vector expresses and secretes an infectious disease antigen fused to an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby treating said infectious disease in said subject.

In another aspect, the invention relates to a method of treating a cancer in a subject having a persistent Th2 phenotypic profile, the method comprising the step of administering to said subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain, wherein said vaccine shifts the Th2 phenotype to a Th1 phenotype, allowing for a cell-mediated anti-cancer response to take place.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The subject matter regarded as the invention is particularly pointed out and distinctly claimed in the specification. The invention, however, may best be understood by reference to the following detailed description when read with the accompanying drawings in which:

FIG. 1. Shows an experimental outline in which Six to eight week old female Balb/c mice were either left naïve or infected by intraperitoneal injection of 50 cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni. Infection was verified at 10 weeks by ELISA for circulating antibodies against Schistosome soluble egg antigens (SEA). Twelve weeks post-infection, mice were primed i.p. with 0.2 (or 0.1) LD₅₀ Listeria-vector HIV-1 vaccine (Lm-gag) or control Listeria-vector HPV vaccine (Lm-E7) or left unvaccinated. Mice were boosted two weeks after the prime in an identical manner. Vaccine responses were evaluated two or more weeks after the last vaccination (wplv), as indicated.

FIG. 2. Shows verification of host Th2-biasing in Schistosome-infected and vaccinated mice. Helminth-infected, Listeria HIV-1-vaccinated mice are Th2 biased and immune suppressed, as indicated by a reduction in IFN-gamma production and increases in levels of IL-4 and IL-10. Ten to twelve weeks post-infection, mice were vaccinated. At 2 wplv, splenocytes were harvested and plated at 1.5 million cells per well in 48-well plates in the presence of media, SEA or concanavalin A (as a positive control). After incubation for 72 hours, supernatants were harvested and analyzed for levels of IFN-g (A), IL-4 (B) and IL-10 (C) by ELISA (BD). Pooled data from two replicate experiments are shown.

FIG. 3 shows IFN-γ production is reduced in S. mansoni infected mice.

FIG. 4 shows IL-4 levels are increased in mice with chronic schistosomiasis.

FIG. 5 shows IL-10 production is increased in mice infected with S. mansoni.

FIG. 6 shows Schistosome infection does not alter the antigen-specific vaccine responses toward immunodominant CTL and helper epitopes.

FIG. 7 shows that administration of a Listeria vector-HIV-1 gag vaccine to mice chronically infected with the helminth parasite Schistosoma mansoni, drives significant immune responses to HIV-1 gag CTL and T helper epitopes. The numbers of IFN-γ-producing CD8+ T cells in cells per million from mice immunized with the Listeria vector-HIV-1 gag vaccine with or without prior S. mansoni infection were compared to unvaccinated controls using IFN-γ ELISPOT assay (mean±S.E.M.). Splenocytes from individual mice (four mice/group) were harvested at 2 weeks after the final vaccination, and stimulated with H2-d-restricted immunodominant CTL and helper peptides for HIV-1 MB gag for 20 h. No spots were detected in cells stimulated with RPMI.

FIG. 8 demonstrates that oral as well as i.p. administration of a Listeria vector-HIV-1 gag vaccine to mice chronically infected with the helminth parasite Schistosoma mansoni, drives significant immune responses to HIV-1 gag CTL and T helper epitopes in a prime boost protocol.

FIG. 9 present data showing that the administration of a Listeria vector-HIV-1 gag vaccine to mice chronically infected with the helminth parasite Schistosoma mansoni, drives significant and specific immune responses to HIV-1 gag CTL and T helper epitopes but not to an irrelevant antigen. All groups showed significant immune response to conA, which served as a positive control.

FIG. 10. present data showing that the administration of a Listeria vector-HIV-1 gag vaccine to mice chronically infected with the helminth parasite Schistosoma mansoni, drives significant and specific immune responses to HIV-1 gag CTL and T helper epitopes but not to medium (negative control) nor to an env-c peptide. All groups showed significant immune response to conA, which served as a positive control.

FIG. 11. Shows a Listeria vector HIV-1 vaccine that induces antigen-specific vaccine responses toward immunodominant CTL and helper epitopes during chronic helminth infection. Two wplv, splenocytes were harvested and plated at 300K and 150K cells per well in IFN-γ ELISpot plates in the presence of media, specific CTL peptide, irrelevant peptide, specific helper peptide or con A (as a positive control). After incubation for 20 hours, ELISpots (BD) were performed, counted using an Immunospot analyzer (C.T.L.), and graphed as number of spots per million splenocytes for CTL (blue) or helper (red) immunodominant epitopes. Splenocytes were unresponsive to media and the irrelevant peptide, NP for all groups, however, responded to the positive control conA (data not shown). Data is inclusive of three independent experiments. Mean±SEM (A) or individual data points (B) were plotted. Total numbers of animals per group are shown above the bars (top left). No significant difference (p<0.05) was observed when comparing Lm-gag±Schistosomiasis using t-test analysis.

FIG. 12 Shows varying the vaccine dose and regimen does not alter the vaccine response to the immunodominant epitope. Experimental details are similar to FIGS. 1 and 3, with differences described herein. For vaccination of animals with chronic Schistosomiasis, the vaccine dose was lowered to 0.1 LD₅₀ (noted as 0.1) or the schedule was altered to eliminate the boost, resulting in a prime-only vaccine strategy (noted as P, for prime only). Reponses against the CTL (A) or helper (B) epitopes are graphed as mean±SEM. Total numbers of animals per group are shown above the bars on the CTL graph. Among responses to the CTL epitope (A), no significant differences between responsive groups were observed. *p<0.05, **p<0.01 when comparing responding groups using t-test analysis.

FIG. 13 Shows cell-mediated immune responses are durable and unaltered by pre-existing chronic helminth infection. Mice were sacrificed at various times post last vaccination and responses of uninfected (green) or schistosome-infected (orange) mice to immunodominant CTL (A) and helper (B) epitopes are shown. Within the effector cell responses to the immunodominant CTL epitope (A), no significant differences (p<0.05) were found when comparing each time point±Schistosomiasis with a t-test analysis, indicating the effector cell response to the vaccine is unchanged over time between the groups. For Th1 responses to the helper epitope (B), *p<0.05 and **p<0.01, when comparing ±Schistosomiasis at each time point using t-test analysis.

FIG. 14 Antigen-specific CD8+ T cells are generated in the presence of Schistosome infection and persist for several months at levels comparable to uninfected. To verify the IFN-gamma responses seen in the ELISpot results arise from antigen-specific CD8+ T cells, splenocytes, at 2 (circles) and 14 (squares) wplv, were analyzed by flow cytometry for molecular specificity to vaccine epitopes. Splenocytes were stained with CD8 and gag-tetramer and live cells were acquired and analyzed for tetramer positive staining within the CD8+ population. Representative data is shown (A) and individual data points are plotted (B). No significant differences (p<0.05) were found when comparing between groups within a given time point, however, **p<0.01 and ***p<0.001, when comparing within vaccination groups using t-test analysis.

FIG. 15 Shows that HIV-1 vaccine induces immunological memory. Central memory T cells are increased several months post vaccination, at which time there is a difference in the schistosome-infected group. At 2 (circles) and 14 (squares) wplv, splenocytes are analyzed by flow cytometry for immunological memory. Splenocytes were stained with CD62L, CD197, CD8 and gag-tetramer. Live cells were acquired and analyzed for central memory (CD62L+CD197+), effector memory (CD62L-CD197−), and molecular specificity (CD8+tetramer+). Since CD44 wasn't used, the effector memory compartment also contains effectors cells and therefore, isn't plotted with these results. However, all tetramer+ cells at 14 wplv were central memory (data not shown). Individual data points are plotted. #p<0.0001, when comparing between or within groups using t-test analysis.

FIG. 16 Shows that HIV-1 vaccine induces functional effector cells in a Th2 environment. To assay for effector cell function, an in vivo CTL assay was performed. Briefly, one million target cells (pulsed with specific or irrelevant peptide, stained green or violet, respectively) were injected intravenously into vaccinated animals. After overnight in vivo killing, splenocytes were collected and analyzed by flow cytometry for target recovery. (A) Graphic representation of in vivo CTL assay. (B) Specific killing by vaccinated groups was plotted and analyzed by one-way ANOVA and Bonferroni. If <100 targets were recovered, data points were removed from analysis. *p<0.05, ***p=0.001. No significant difference was observed between Lm-gag vaccinated groups with and without chronic Schistosomiasis.

FIG. 17 Shows that established HIV-1 vaccine responses are altered by subsequent Schistosome infection. Although responses to helper peptides remain unchanged, vaccination prior to schistosome infection causes CTL responses to diminish as the immune system shifts to a Th2 bias. An outline of the experimental setup is shown (A). Briefly, six to eight week old female Balb/c mice were primed i.p. with 0.2 LD₅₀ Listeria-vector HIV-1 vaccine (Lm-gag) or left unvaccinated. Mice were boosted two weeks after the prime in an identical manner. Two wplv, mice were infected by intraperitoneal injection of 50 cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni (orange) or left uninfected (green). Mice were sacrificed at various times post schistosome infection and responses to immunodominant CTL (B) and helper (C) epitopes are shown. One very positive outlier was removed from each of 2 time points for uninfected mice on the CTL graph (B). *p<0.05, comparing ±Schisto at each time point using t-test analysis.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESENT INVENTION

In relation to initiation of Th1 and Th2 response, cytokines are regarded as key factors [Paul, W. E. et al., Cell 76 (1994) 241-251], with IL-4 representing the decisive cytokine signal for the differentiation of naive T-helper cells into Th2 cells. The initiation of a Th1 response is on the other hand controlled essentially by IL-12 and IFN-gamma, which are produced by dendritic cells and other accessory cells.

The early production of IL-4 or IL-12 and thus T-cell differentiation are controlled by exogenous and endogenous factors. Among the exogenous factors, the nature of the pathogen is particularly important. A number of pathogens preferentially stimulate a Th1, others a Th2 response [Scott, P. et al., Immunol. Today 12 (1991) 346-348]. It is well known in the art that internal parasites that suppress immune responses, skew the host immune system of human and animals to T-helper type 2 (Th2), and suppress vaccine-specific responses. Further, a failure of the Th1 arm of the immune system and an overactive Th2 arm is implicated in a wide variety of chronic illnesses. These include AIDS, CFS, candidiasis, multiple allergies, multiple chemical sensitivities (MCS), viral hepatitis, gulf war illness, cancer and other illnesses. If these two arms of the immune system could be balanced by stimulating Th1 and decreasing Th2, then many of the symptoms associated with these chronic illnesses would diminish or disappear and we would have found the answer to immune restoration and balance or the equivalent of a cure. Therefore, an object of the invention is to provide methods of driving vaccine-specific immune responses in persistent Th2 profile individuals to enable anti-infectious disease Th1-type and cytotoxic T-cell responses. It is a further object of the invention to provide methods of driving vaccine-specific immune responses in parasitically infected populations to enable anti-HIV, anti-Tuberculosis and anti-malaria immune responses.

In one embodiment, the immune response induced by the methods and compositions provided herein is a therapeutic one. In another embodiment it is a prophylactic immune response. In another embodiment, it is an enhanced immune response over methods available in the art for inducing an immune response in a subject afflicted with the conditions provided herein. In another embodiment, the immune response leads to clearance of the infectious disease afflicting the subject.

It is to be understood that the methods of the present invention may be used to treat any infectious disease, which in one embodiment, is bacterial, viral, microbial, microorganism, pathogenic, or combination thereof, infection. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention are for inhibiting or suppressing a bacterial, viral, microbial, microorganism, pathogenic, or combination thereof, infection in a subject. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of eliciting a cytotoxic T-cell response against a bacterial, viral, microbial, microorganism, pathogenic, or combination thereof, infection in a subject. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of inducing a Th1 immune response against a bacterial, viral, microbial, microorganism, pathogenic, or combination thereof, infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject. In one embodiment, the infection is viral, which in one embodiment, is HIV. In one embodiment, the infection is bacterial, which in one embodiment, is mycobacteria, which in one embodiment, is tuberculosis. In one embodiment, the infection is eukaryotic, which in one embodiment, is plasmodium, which in one embodiment, is malaria.

In one embodiment, provided herein is a method of inducing a Th1 immune response in a subject having a persistent Th2 phenotypic profile, the method comprising the step of administering to the subject a therapeutically effective dose of a Listeria vaccine vector. In another embodiment, the Listeria vaccine vector expresses and secretes an antigen fused to an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby inducing the Th1 immune response in the subject.

In one embodiment, also provided herein is a method of inducing a Th1 immune response against an infectious disease in a subject having a persistent Th2 phenotypic profile, the method comprising the step of administering to the subject a therapeutically effective dose of a Listeria vaccine vector, wherein the Listeria vaccine vector expresses and secretes an infectious disease antigen fused to an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby inducing a Th1 immune response in the subject.

In one embodiment, provided herein is a method of treating an infectious disease in a subject having a persistent Th2 phenotypic profile, the method comprising the step of administering to the subject a therapeutically effective dose of a Listeria vaccine vector, wherein the Listeria vaccine vector expresses and secretes an infectious disease antigen fused to an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby treating the infectious disease in the subject.

In one embodiment, also provided herein is a method of treating a cancer in a subject having a persistent Th2 phenotypic profile, the method comprising the step of administering to the subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain, wherein the vaccine shifts the Th2 phenotype to a Th1 phenotype and allowing for a cell-mediated anti-cancer response to take place.

In another embodiment, the Listeria strain expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an antigen from the cancer operably linked to an additional immunogenic polypeptide. In another embodiment, the method further makes the cancer amenable to treatment with an additional treatment method. In another embodiment, the additional treatment method is surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, provided herein is a method of treating, suppressing, or inhibiting at least one tumor or cancer in a subject comprising administering a recombinant Listeria strain provided herein to the subject. In another embodiment, the tumor is a prostate tumor, brain tumor, lung tumor, gastrointestinal tumor, pancreatic tumor, an ovarian tumor, breast tumor, or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the tumor is a cancer, in yet another embodiment, the cancer is a metastatic cancer. In another embodiment, the cancer is a prostate cancer, brain cancer, lung cancer, gastrointestinal cancer, pancreatic cancer, an ovarian cancer, head and neck cancer, glioma, colon cancer, breast cancer, or a combination thereof or any cancer known in the art to generate a Th2 biased immune response in the subject.

In one embodiment, the cancer antigens provided herein can be selected from but are not limited to prostate specific antigen (PSA) and prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA), which in one embodiment is FOLH1, HPV-E7, HPV-E6, SCCE, NY-ESO-1, PSMA, prostate stem cell antigen (PSCA), WT-1, HIV-1 Gag, CEA, LMP-1, p53, Proteinase 3, Tyrosinase related protein 2, Muc1 EGFR-III, VEGF-R or any other cancer-associated antigen or any other antigen associated with tumor immune evasion or resistance to cancer. In another embodiment, the antigen is HMW-MAA or a functional fragment thereof. In another embodiment, the cancer antigen is from a cancer known to induce a Th2 profile in a subject having the cancer.

In one embodiment, the cause of a Th2 biased response is a helminth infection, a parasitic infection, an infectious disease, a hormonal therapy, a chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), an allergic reaction, a gulf-war related illness, multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), a drug regimen, an autoimmune disease, chemotherapy, or any combination thereof or condition known in the art to cause a Th2 biased immune response in a subject.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of inducing a Th1 immune response in a Th1 unresponsive subject having a concomitant parasitic infection or helminth infection, the method comprising administering a therapeutically effective dose of a Listeria vaccine vector provided herein to the subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of inducing a Th1 immune response in a Th1 unresponsive subject having concomitant infectious disease and parasitic infections, the method comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective dose of a Listeria vaccine vector, wherein the Listeria vaccine vector expresses and secretes an antigen of the infectious disease.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of inducing a Th1 immune response in a Th1 unresponsive subject having concomitant infectious disease and parasitic infections, the method comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective dose of a Listeria vaccine vector, wherein the Listeria vaccine vector expresses and secretes an antigen of the infectious disease fused to an additional immunogenic polypeptide.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of inducing a Th1 immune response against an infectious disease in a Th1 unresponsive subject having a parasitic infection, the method comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an infectious disease antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide. In another embodiment, the infectious disease is a parasitic infection.

In one embodiment, the infectious disease is one caused by, but not limited to, any one of the following pathogens: leishmania, Entamoeba histolytica (which causes amebiasis), trichuris, BCG/Tuberculosis, Malaria, Plasmodium falciparum, plasmodium malariae, plasmodium vivax, Rotavirus, Cholera, Diptheria-Tetanus, Pertussis, Haemophilus influenzae, Hepatitis B, Human papilloma virus, Influenza seasonal), Influenza A (H1N1) Pandemic, Measles and Rubella, Mumps, Meningococcus A+C, Oral Polio Vaccines, mono, bi and trivalent, Pneumococcal, Rabies, Tetanus Toxoid, Yellow Fever, Bacillus anthracis (anthrax), Clostridium botulinum toxin (botulism), Yersinia pestis (plague), Variola major (smallpox) and other related pox viruses, Francisella tularensis (tularemia), Viral hemorrhagic fevers, Arenaviruses (LCM, Junin virus, Machupo virus, Guanarito virus, Lassa Fever), Bunyaviruses (Hantaviruses, Rift Valley Fever), Flaviruses (Dengue), Filoviruses (Ebola, Marburg), Burkholderia pseudomallei, Coxiella burnetii (Q fever), Brucella species (brucellosis), Burkholderia mallei (glanders), Chlamydia psittaci (Psittacosis), Ricin toxin (from Ricinus communis), Epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens, Staphylococcus enterotoxin B, Typhus fever (Rickettsia prowazekii), other Rickettsias, Food- and Waterborne Pathogens, Bacteria (Diarrheagenic E. coli, Pathogenic Vibrios, Shigella species, Salmonella BCG/, Campylobacter jejuni, Yersinia enterocolitica), Viruses (Caliciviruses, Hepatitis A, West Nile Virus, LaCrosse, California encephalitis, VEE, EEE, WEE, Japanese Encephalitis Virus, Kyasanur Forest Virus, Nipah virus, hantaviruses, Tickborne hemorrhagic fever viruses, Chikungunya virus, Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic fever virus, Tickborne encephalitis viruses, Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus, Herpes Simplex virus (HSV), Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Human papillomavirus (HPV)), Protozoa (Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayatanensis, Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, Toxoplasma), Fungi (Microsporidia), Yellow fever, Tuberculosis, including drug-resistant TB, Rabies, Prions, Severe acute respiratory syndrome associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Coccidioides posadasii, Coccidioides immitis, Bacterial vaginosis, Chlamydia trachomatis, Cytomegalovirus, Granuloma inguinale, Hemophilus ducreyi, Neisseria gonorrhea, Treponema pallidum, Trichomonas vaginalis, or any other infectious disease known in the art that is not listed herein.

In one embodiment, pathogenic protozoans and helminths infections include: amebiasis; malaria; leishmaniasis; trypanosomiasis; toxoplasmosis; pneumocystis carinii; babesiosis; giardiasis; trichinosis; filariasis; schistosomiasis; nematodes; trematodes or flukes; and cestode (tapeworm) infections.

In another embodiment, the infectious disease is a livestock infectious disease. In another embodiment, livestock diseases can be transmitted to man and are called “zoonotic diseases.” In another embodiment, these diseases include, but are not limited to, Foot and mouth disease, West Nile Virus, rabies, canine parvovirus, feline leukemia virus, equine influenza virus, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), pseudorabies, classical swine fever (CSF), IBR, caused by bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1) infection of cattle, and pseudorabies (Aujeszky's disease) in pigs, toxoplasmosis, anthrax, vesicular stomatitis virus, rhodococcus equi, Tularemia, Plague (Yersinia pestis), trichomonas.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating an infectious disease in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the steps of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an infectious disease antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby treating the infectious disease in the Th1 unresponsive subject. In another embodiment, the infectious disease is a parasitic infection.

In one embodiment, a “Th1 unresponsive” or “Th2 persistent” subject is one in which the Th1 immune response is defective, lacking, or repressed a result of a parasitic infection in the subject. In another embodiment the terms refer to a subject wherein a Th2 response is not exclusively present in the subject, but predominates over the Th1 response in the subject. In another embodiment, the terms refer to a subject wherein a Th2 response is exclusively present in the subject and there are no indicators (i.e. cytokines, chemokines or other known markers) of a Th1 response.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating an infectious disease in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the steps of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an HIV antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby treating the infectious disease in the Th1 unresponsive subject. In another embodiment, the infectious disease is a parasitic infection.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the steps of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an HIV antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby treating the HIV infection in the Th1 unresponsive subject.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of suppressing an infectious disease in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the steps of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an infectious disease antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby suppressing the infectious disease in the Th1 unresponsive subject. In another embodiment, the infectious disease is a parasitic infection.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of suppressing a Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection in a subject with a parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an HIV antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby suppressing the HIV infection in the subject.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of inhibiting an infectious disease in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the steps of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an infectious disease antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby inhibiting the infectious disease in the Th1 unresponsive subject. In another embodiment, the infectious disease is a parasitic infection.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of inhibiting a Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection in a subject with a parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an HIV antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby inhibiting the HIV infection in the subject.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of eliciting a cytotoxic T-cell response to an infectious disease in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the steps of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an infectious disease antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby inhibiting the infectious disease in the Th1 unresponsive subject. In another embodiment, the infectious disease is a parasitic infection.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of eliciting a cytotoxic T-cell response to a Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection in a subject with a parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an HIV antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby eliciting the cytotoxic T-cell response in the subject.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a viral infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an viral antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby treating the viral infection in the Th1 unresponsive subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of suppressing a viral infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising a viral antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby suppressing the viral infection in the Th1 unresponsive subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of inhibiting a viral infection in a subject with a parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising an HIV antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby inhibiting the viral infection in the subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of eliciting a cytotoxic T-cell response to a viral infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising a viral antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby eliciting the cytotoxic T-cell response in the Th1 unresponsive subject.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a malaria infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with an additional parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising a malaria antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby treating the malaria infection in the Th1 unresponsive subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of suppressing a malaria infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with an additional parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising a malaria antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby suppressing the malaria infection in the Th1 unresponsive subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of inhibiting a malaria infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with an additional parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising a malaria antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby inhibiting the malaria infection in the Th1 unresponsive subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of eliciting a cytotoxic T-cell response to a malaria infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with an additional parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising a malaria antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby eliciting the cytotoxic T-cell response in the Th1 unresponsive subject.

In one embodiment, administering the recombinant Listeria in the Th1 unresponsive subject with the parasitic infection enables the generation of a memory immune response. In another embodiment, the response is a memory T-cell response. In another embodiment, the response is a memory B-cell response.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a tuberculosis infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising a tuberculosis antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby treating said tuberculosis infection in said Th1 unresponsive subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of suppressing a tuberculosis infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising a tuberculosis antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby suppressing said tuberculosis infection in the Th1 unresponsive subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of inhibiting a tuberculosis infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising a tuberculosis antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby inhibiting said tuberculosis infection in the Th1 unresponsive subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of eliciting a cytotoxic T-cell response to a tuberculosis infection in a Th1 unresponsive subject with a parasitic infection comprising the step of administering to the parasitic-infected subject a vaccine comprising a recombinant Listeria strain that expresses and secretes a fusion protein comprising a tuberculosis antigen and an additional immunogenic polypeptide, thereby eliciting said cytotoxic T-cell response in the Th1 unresponsive subject.

In one embodiment, a vaccine or immunogenic composition of the present invention is administered alone to a subject. In another embodiment, the vaccine or immunogenic composition is administered together with another anti-parasitic therapy. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

In another embodiment, methods of administering the vaccine are well known in the art and include, but are not limited to, oral administration, parenteral administration, intravenous (IV) administration, intranasal administration, or intraperitoneal (IP) administration.

In another embodiment, the additional immunogenic polypeptide is a Listeriolysin O (LLO) polypeptide, an ActA polypeptide, or a PEST sequence. In yet another embodiment, the LLO polypeptide comprises a signal sequence from a wild-type listerial protein.

In another embodiment, the recombinant Listeria strain is a Listeria monocytogenes strain.

In one embodiment, the methods of the present invention are for treating an HIV or other microbial infection. In another embodiment, the other microbial infection is tuberculosis. In another embodiment, it is malaria. In another embodiment it is hepatitis A, B or C, in another embodiment, it is influenza.

In one embodiment, the terms “treating”, “therapeutic”, “therapy” are used interchangeably herein and refer to therapeutic treatment, while “inhibiting” and “suppressing” refer to prophylactic or preventative measures, wherein the object is to prevent or lessen the targeted pathologic condition or disorder as described hereinabove. Thus, in one embodiment, treating may include directly affecting or curing the disease, disorder or condition and/or related symptoms, while suppressing or inhibiting may include preventing, reducing the severity of, delaying the onset of, reducing symptoms associated with the disease, disorder or condition, or a combination thereof. Thus, in one embodiment, “treating” refers inter alia to delaying progression, expediting remission, inducing remission, augmenting remission, speeding recovery, increasing efficacy of or decreasing resistance to alternative therapeutics, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, “prophylaxis,” “prophylactic,” “preventing” or “inhibiting” refers, inter alia, to delaying the onset of symptoms, preventing relapse to a disease, decreasing the number or frequency of relapse episodes, increasing latency between symptomatic episodes, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, “suppressing” refers inter alia to reducing the severity of symptoms, reducing the severity of an acute episode, reducing the number of symptoms, reducing the incidence of disease-related symptoms, reducing the latency of symptoms, ameliorating symptoms, reducing secondary symptoms, reducing secondary infections, prolonging patient survival, or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, symptoms are primary, while in another embodiment, symptoms are secondary. In one embodiment, “primary” refers to a symptom that is a direct result of the subject viral infection, while in one embodiment, “secondary” refers to a symptom that is derived from or consequent to a primary cause. In one embodiment, the compositions and strains for use in the present invention treat primary or secondary symptoms or secondary complications related to HIV or other microbial infection.

In another embodiment, “symptoms” may be any manifestation of a disease or pathological condition, comprising inflammation, swelling, sputum, fever, pain, bleeding, itching, runny nose, coughing, headache, migraine, difficulty breathing, weakness, fatigue, drowsiness, weight loss, nausea, vomiting, constipation, diarrhea, numbness, dizziness, blurry vision, muscle twitches, convulsions, etc., or a combination thereof.

In another embodiment, the disease, disorder, or symptom is fever. In another embodiment, the disease, disorder, or symptom is headache. In another embodiment, the disease, disorder, or symptom is stiff neck. In another embodiment, the disease, disorder, or symptom is seizures. In another embodiment, the disease, disorder, or symptom is partial paralysis. In another embodiment, the disease, disorder, or symptom is stupor. In another embodiment, the disease, disorder, or symptom is coma. In another embodiment, the disease, disorder, or symptom is any other disease, disorder, or symptom known in the art that is associated with or is secondary to a pathogen-mediated encephalitis.

HIV induces a persistent and progressive infection leading, in the vast majority of cases, to the development of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (“AIDS”). There are at least two distinct types of HIV: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV infection leads to immune incompetence, opportunistic infections, neurological dysfunctions, neoplastic growth, and ultimately death. The HIV RNA genome consists of at least seven structural landmarks (LTR, TAR, RRE, PE, SLIP, CRS, and INS) and nine genes (gag, pol, and env, tat, rev, nef, vif, vpr, vpu, and sometimes a tenth tev, which is a fusion of tat env and rev) encoding 19 proteins. Three of these genes, gag, pol, and env, contain information needed to make the structural proteins for new virus particles. For example, env codes for a protein called gp160 that is broken down by a viral enzyme to form gp120 and gp41. The six remaining genes, tat, rev, nef, vif, vpr, and vpu (or vpx in the case of HIV-2), are regulatory genes for proteins that control the ability of HIV to infect cells, produce new copies of virus (replicate), or cause disease. The two Tat proteins (p16 and p14) are transcriptional trans activators for the LTR promoter acting by binding the TAR RNA element. The TAR may also be processed into microRNAs that regulate the apoptosis genes ERCC1 and IER3. The Rev protein (p19) is involved in shuttling RNAs from the nucleus and the cytoplasm by binding to the RRE RNA element. The Vif protein (p23) prevents the action of APOBEC3G (a cell protein that deaminates DNA:RNA hybrids and/or interferes with the Pol protein). The Vpr protein (p14) arrests cell division at G2/M. The Nef protein (p27) down-regulates CD4 (the major viral receptor), as well as the MHC class I and class II molecules.

Nef also interacts with SH3 domains. The Vpu protein (p16) influences the release of new virus particles from infected cells. The ends of each strand of HIV RNA contain an RNA sequence called the long terminal repeat (LTR). Regions in the LTR act as switches to control production of new viruses and can be triggered by proteins from either HIV or the host cell. The Psi element is involved in viral genome packaging and recognized by Gag and Rev proteins. The SLIP element (TTTTTT) is involved in the frameshift in the Gag-Pol reading frame required to make functional Pol. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV-cite_note-compendia-50

HIV uses a receptor-mediated pathway in the infection of host cells. HIV requires contact with two cell-surface receptors to gain entry into cells and initiate infection; CD4 is the primary receptor. CXCR4 (“X4”) and CCR5 (“R5”), members of the chemokine receptor family of proteins, serve as secondary co-receptors for HIV isolates that have historically been called tropic for T cell lines or macrophages, respectively. CXCR4 or CCR5, in conjunction with CD4, form a functional cellular receptor for entry of certain strains of HIV into cells.

The HIV antigen-encoding DNA for insertion into these vectors are any that are known to be effective antigens for protection against a retrovirus. These can include both structural and non-structural proteins. The envelope, polymerase, gag, and protease are preferred proteins or sources of epitopes, but other proteins or epitopes can also be employed including those proteins encoded by non-structural genes, e.g., rev, tat, nef, vif, and vpr. For HIV, nucleic acids that can be inserted into the viral vector includes, but are not limited to, nucleic acid that can code for at least one of: HIV1gag(+pro)(IIIB), gp120(MN)(+transmembrane), nef(BRU)CTL, pol(IIIB)CTL, ELDKWA or LDKW epitopes, preferably HIV1gag(+pro)(IIIB), gp120(MN) (+transmembrane), two (2) nef(BRU)CTL and three pol(IIIB)CTL epitopes; or two ELDKWA in gp120 V3 or another region or in gp160. The two nef(BRU)CTL and three pol(IIIB) CTL epitopes are preferably CTL1, CTL2, pol1, pol2 and pol3. In the above listing, the viral strains from which the antigens are derived are noted parenthetically. HIV and its antigens, including HIV-gag are well known in the art (see for e.g. U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,790,177 and 7,786,288 incorporated herein in its entirety by reference). HIV-gag antigens contemplated for use in the methods provided herein include those known in the art that can be searched for in Genbank and similar databases, and include but are not limited to for example, accession No. ADG95996, CBI61237, CBI61236, CBI61235, CBI61234, CBI61233, CBI61232, CBI61231, CBI61230, CBI61229, CBI61228, CBI61227, CBI61226, CBI61225, CBI61224, CBI61223, CBI61222, CBI61221, CBI61220, CBI61219, CBI61218, CBI61217, CBI61216, CBI61215, CBI61214, CBI61213, CBI61212, CBI61211, CBI61210, CBI61209, CBI61208, CBI61207, CBI61206, CBI61205, CBI61204, CBI61203, CBI61202, CBI61201, CBI61200, CBI61199, CBI61198, CBI61197, CBI61196, CBI61195, CBI61194, CBI61193, CBI61192, CBI61191, CBI61190, CBI61189, CBI61188, CBI61187, CBI61186, CBI61185, CBI61184, CBI61183, CBI61182. HIV-pol antigens contemplated for use in the methods provided herein include those known in the art that can be searched for in Genbank and similar databases, and include but are not limited to for example, accession No. AAF35355, BAF32553, BAF32544, BAF32535.1, BAF32526, BAF32517, BAF32508, BAF32499, BAF32490, BAF32481, BAF32472, BAF32463, BAF32454, BAF32445, BAF32436, BAF32427, BAF32418, BAF32409, BAF32400, BAF32391, BAF32382, BAF32373, BAF32364, BAF32355, BAF32346, BAF32337, BAF32328, BAF32319, BAF32310, BAF32301. HIV-env antigens contemplated for use in the methods provided herein include those known in the art that can be searched for in Genbank and similar databases, and include but are not limited to for example, accession No. AAB09538, CAA00873, AAF35356, AAD42280, AAD42279, AAD42278, AAD42277, AAD42276, AAD42275, AAD42274, AAD42273, AAD42272, AAD42271, AAD42270, AAD42269, AAD42268, AAD42267, AAD42266, AAD42265, AAD42264, AAD42263, AAD42262, AAD42261, AAD42260, AAA53206, BAF32559, BAF32550, BAF32541, BAF32532, BAF32523.

Methods of determining the presence of an HIV infection are well known in the art and include, inter alia, detection of HIV antibodies, antigens, or nucleic acids in serum, saliva, urine, or a combination thereof. Methods of determining the severity of an HIV infection are well known in the art and include, inter alia, measurement of viral load or CD4 decline. Each method represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the methods of the present invention comprise treating secondary complications of HIV infection. In another embodiment, the methods comprise treating opportunistic infections, neoplasms, neurologic abnormalities, or progressive immunologic deterioration. In another embodiment, the methods comprise treating acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). In another embodiment, the methods comprise treating a decline in the number of CD4+ T lymphocytes.

In another embodiment, methods comprise treating HIV transmitted by direct sexual contact, either homosexual or heterosexual; by blood or blood products; or from an infected mother to infant, either intrapartum, perinatally, or via breast milk.

In one embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat HIV or related infections that were acquired via zoonotic transmission. In one embodiment, methods of treating infection comprise treating Clade A, B, C, D, A/E, F, G, H, J, or K. In another embodiment, the infection is mediated by HIV-1, while in another embodiment, it's mediated by HIV-2. In one embodiment, it's mediated by the M group of HIV-1, in another embodiment, it's mediated by the O group of HIV-1, while in another embodiment, it's mediated by the N group of HIV-1. In one embodiment, it's mediated by the A clade (or subtype) of the M group of HIV-1, in another embodiment, it's mediated by the B clade of the M group of HIV-1, in another embodiment, it's mediated by the C clade of the M group of HIV-1, in another embodiment, it's mediated by the D clade of the M group of HIV-1, in another embodiment, it's mediated by the A/E clade of the M group of HIV-1, in another embodiment, it's mediated by the F clade of the M group of HIV-1, in another embodiment, it's mediated by the G clade of the M group of HIV-1, in another embodiment, it's mediated by the H clade of the M group of HIV-1, in another embodiment, it's mediated by the J clade of the M group of HIV-1, in another embodiment, it's mediated by the K clade of the M group of HIV-1, in another embodiment, it's mediated by the A/G/I clade of the M group of HIV-1, while in another embodiment, it's mediated by a circulating recombinant form (CRF) of any of the above clades. The classification of HIV strains into subtypes and CRFs is a complex issue and the definitions are subject to change as new discoveries are made. Hence the present invention encompasses any HIV subtype discovered or known in the art.

In one embodiment, methods of treating infection comprise treating a macrophage-tropic strain of HIV, T cell-tropic strain of HIV, or any combination thereof. In one embodiment, the methods of the present invention will treat infection mediated by a macrophage-tropic strain of HIV. In another embodiment, the compounds will treat infection mediated by a T cell-tropic strain of HIV. In another embodiment, the compounds will treat infection mediated by either a macrophage-tropic strain of HIV, a T cell-tropic, or both. In another embodiment, the mechanism of action of the methods of the present invention differ based on the tropism of HIV.

In one embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress HIV in subjects who have been diagnosed with HIV. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress HIV in subjects who have not been diagnosed with HIV. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress HIV in subjects who have been exposed to HIV. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress HIV in subjects in the window period, which in one embodiment, is the period between exposure to HIV and the production of an immune response sufficient to detect HIV antibodies using standard HIV tests.

In one embodiment, the methods of the present invention for treating an HIV infection may be used with other methods of treating an HIV infection known in the art and may increase the efficacy of the other methods of treatment. In one embodiment, a method of treating an HIV infection is administration of an antiretroviral drug or a combination of antiretroviral drugs.

In one embodiment, the current method of treating, inhibiting or suppressing HIV is highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), which in one embodiment is a combination (or “cocktail”) consisting of at least three drugs belonging to at least two types, or “classes,” of antiretroviral agents. In one embodiment, a current method of treating, inhibiting or suppressing HIV is administering a nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NARTI or NRTI), a protease inhibitor, a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI), or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, a current method of treating, inhibiting or suppressing HIV is administering an entry inhibitor. In another embodiment, a current method of treating, inhibiting or suppressing HIV is administering an HIV vaccine.

In one embodiment, the infectious disease is leshmaniasis, and is caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania and is endemic in many parts of Africa, Asia and South America. It is transmitted by the sand fly or the Phlebotimus species. Leishmaniasis causes 3 types of disease i.e. visceral leishmaniasis (caused by L.d. donovani, L.d. infantum, L.d chagasi), cutaneous leishmaniasis (caused by L. tropica, L. major, L. aethiopica, L. Mexicana), and muco-cutaneous leishmaniasis (L. braziliensis complex). Several antigens Leishmania antigens are used to diagnose the infection and these include, but are not limited to Leishmania antigens (rH2A, KMP11, and the “Q” protein). Methods for diagnosis Leishmaniasis include those methods described in the art, for example in Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2004 December; 23 (12):899-904, and in Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology, October 2005, p. 1164-1167, Vol. 12, No. 10, each of which are incorporated herein in their entirety.

In one embodiment, the infectious disease is Amebiasis. Amebiasis is caused by Entamoeba histolytica, a protozoan found worldwide. The highest prevalence of amebiasis is in developing countries where barriers between human feces and food and water supplies are inadequate. E. histolytica is transmitted via ingestion of the cystic form (infective stage) of the protozoa. Viable in the environment for weeks to months, cysts can be found in fecally contaminated soil, fertilizer, or water or on the contaminated hands of food handlers. Fecal-oral transmission can also occur in the setting of anal sexual practices or direct rectal inoculation through colonic irrigation devices. Excystation then occurs in the terminal ileum or colon, resulting in trophozoites (invasive form). The trophozoites can penetrate and invade the colonic mucosal barrier, leading to tissue destruction, secretory bloody diarrhea, and colitis resembling inflammatory bowel disease. In addition, the trophozoites can spread hematogenously via the portal circulation to the liver or even to more distant organs. Methods of diagnosis amebiasis include, microscopy, In vitro culture and isoenzyme analysis, antigen detection on stool samples, serology (such as detection of Gal/GalNAc lectin antigen in serum), molecular diagnoses using PCR, amebic liver abscess, further colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy may be used for the diagnosis of amoebic colitis.

In one embodiment, the infectious disease or parasitic infection is Trichuriasis. Trichuriasis is caused by Trichuris trichiura or Trichocephalus trichiuris, which is a roundworm that causes trichuriasis when it infects a human large intestine. Trichuriasis is transmitted by the fecal-oral route, and larvae hatch in the small intestine, where they grow and molt, finally taking up residence in the large intestine. The disease can be diagnosed by detecting eggs in stool examination. Eggs will appear barrel-shaped, unembryonated, having bipolar plugs and a smooth shell. Rectal prolapse can be diagnosed easily using a defecating proctogram and is one of many methods for imaging the parasitic infection. Further, sigmoidoscopy shows characteristic white bodies of adult hanging from inflamed mucosa (coconut cake rectum).

In one embodiment, the parasitic infection or the infectious disease is Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale curtisi, Plasmodium ovale wallikeri, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium brasilianum, Plasmodium cynomolgi, Plasmodium cynomolgi bastianellii, Plasmodium inui, Plasmodium rhodiani, Plasmodium schwetzi, Plasmodium semiovale, Plasmodium simium. In one embodiment, the parasitic infection is any plasmodium known to infect humans.

In one embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress malaria in subjects who have been diagnosed with malaria. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress malaria in subjects who have not been diagnosed with malaria. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress malaria in subjects who have been exposed to malaria. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress malaria in subjects in the window period, which in one embodiment is the period between exposure to malaria and the production of an immune response sufficient to detect malaria antibodies using standard malaria tests.

In one embodiment, symptoms of malaria are: fever and shivering; a poor general condition, feeling unwell and having headaches like influenza infection, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, fatigue, or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, symptoms of malaria are: increased drowsiness, leading to coma and associated failure of all the major organ systems low blood pressure (hypotension), kidney failure, possible haemorrhage (bleeding), effects on the liver (e.g. infectious jaundice), shock, coma or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, malaria is cerebral malaria. In one embodiment, malaria is Blackwater fever.

In one embodiment, malaria is diagnosed by symptomatic diagnosis, Microscopic examination of blood films, Antigen tests (which in one embodiment is P. falciparum glutamate dehydrogenase or P. falciparum lactate dehydrogenase), or PCR-based assays such as QT-NASBA. In one embodiment, malaria is diagnosed in subjects with an additional parasitic infection prior to or, in another embodiment, as a first step in, the methods of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the vaccine for use in the methods of the present invention are used along with known malaria treatments or preventative compositions, which in one embodiment, include administration of mefloquine (in one embodiment, Lariam), doxycycline, the combination of atovaquone and proguanil hydrochloride (in one embodiment, Malarone), or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, malaria treatment/prevention may include administration of quinine, quinacrine, chloroquine, primaquine, or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, the recombinant Listeria monocytogenes used in the methods of the present invention comprises a malaria antigen, which in one embodiment, is any malaria antigen known in the art. In one embodiment, the malaria antigen is Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein (CSP) CSP and sporozoite surface protein 2 (called PfSSP; liver stage antigen 1 (LSA1), merozoite surface protein 1 (MSP-1), serine repeat antigen and AMA-1; Pfs25; schizont export protein; 19 repeats of the sporozoite surface protein [NANP]; CSP covalently bound to an immunogenic peptide, in one embodiment, purified Pseudomonas aeruginosa toxin or to another antigen, in one embodiment, surface antigen from Hepatitis B, or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the malaria antigen is one or more of the antigens from the following vaccine: SPf66; recombinant (Asn-Ala-Pro15Asn-Val-Asp-Pro)2-Leu-Arg(R32LR) protein covalently bound to a purified Pseudomonas aeruginosa toxin; NYVAC-Pf7; [NANP] 19-5.1; RTS,S, RTS,S/AS01; or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, the infection is a bacterial infection, which in another embodiment is mycobacteria, which in one embodiment, is tuberculosis.

In one embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress tuberculosis in subjects who have been diagnosed with tuberculosis. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress tuberculosis in subjects who have not been diagnosed with tuberculosis. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress tuberculosis in subjects who have been exposed to tuberculosis. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention may be used to treat, inhibit or suppress tuberculosis in subjects in the window period, which in one embodiment, is the period between exposure to tuberculosis and the production of an immune response sufficient to detect tuberculosis antibodies using standard tuberculosis tests.

In one embodiment, the methods of the present invention are used in conjunction with methods of determining tuberculosis infection or after a tuberculosis diagnosis has been made. In one embodiment, tuberculosis diagnosis is from identifying the causative organism (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in a clinical sample (for example, sputum or pus). In one embodiment, tuberculosis diagnosis is made using imaging (X-rays or scans); a tuberculin skin test (in one embodiment, a Mantoux test); PCR assays for the detection of bacterial DNA, interferon release assays (IGRAs) (in one embodiment, ESAT-6-responsive, or antigens 85a or 85b responsive) or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, an attenuated live bovine tuberculosis bacillus is used together with the vaccine for use in the present invention. In another embodiment, Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine is used together with the vaccine for use in the present invention.

In one embodiment, the most commonly used diagnostic tool for tuberculosis (TB) is a simple skin test.

In another embodiment, another tuberculosis diagnostic tool is the Mantoux test, in which a small amount of a substance called PPD tuberculin is injected just below the skin of the subject's forearm. Within 48 to 72 hours, a health care professional checks the subject's arm for swelling at the injection site, indicating a reaction to the injected material. In one embodiment, a hard, raised red bump (induration) means the subject is ready to have TB infection. The size of the bump determines whether the test results are significant, based on the subject's risk factors for TB.

However, the Mantoux test isn't perfect as false-positive test suggests that a subject has TB when it is not the case. This is most likely to occur if the subject is infected with a different type of mycobacterium other than the one that causes tuberculosis, or if the subject has recently been vaccinated with the bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine. This TB vaccine is seldom used in the United States, but widely used in countries with high TB infection rates. On the other hand, some people who are infected with TB—including children, older people and people with AIDS—may have a delayed or no response to the Mantoux test.

Blood tests may be used to confirm or rule out latent or active TB. These tests use sophisticated technology to measure the immune system's reaction to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These tests are quicker and more accurate than is the traditional skin test. They may be useful if you're at high risk of TB infection but have a negative response to the Mantoux test, or if you received the BCG vaccine.

Having little or no reaction to the Mantoux test can mean that a subject is not infected with TB bacteria. But in some cases it's possible to have TB infection in spite of a negative test.

In one embodiment, one reason for a false-negative test include recent TB infection as it can take eight to 10 weeks after a subject has been infected for the subject's body to react to a skin test. Hence a subject may need to repeat the test in a few months.

In another embodiment, another reason for false-negative is if a subject is immuno-compromised by an illness, such as AIDS, or by corticosteroid or chemotherapy drugs, given that the subject may not respond to the Mantoux test, even though you're infected with TB.

In another embodiment, another reason for false-negative results include vaccination with a live virus given that vaccines that contain a live virus, such as the measles or smallpox vaccine, can interfere with a TB skin test.

In yet another embodiment, another reason for false-negative results includes overwhelming TB disease. If the subject's body has been overwhelmed with TB bacteria, it may not be able to mount enough of a defense to respond to the skin test.

In one embodiment, another reason for false-negative results includes improper testing. Sometimes the PPD tuberculin may be injected too deeply below the surface of the subject's skin. In that case, any reaction the subject has may not be visible.

In one embodiment, if the results of a TB test are positive (referred to as “significant”), a subject may have further tests to help determine whether the subject has active TB disease and whether it is a drug-resistant strain. These tests may include chest X-ray or CT scan. In some cases, this may show white spots in your lungs where your immune system has walled off TB bacteria. In others, it may reveal a nodule or cavities in your lungs caused by active TB. In one embodiment, a computerized tomography (CT) scan, which uses cross-sectional X-ray images, may show more subtle signs of disease.

If the subject's chest X-ray shows signs of TB, the clinician may take a sample of the subject's stomach secretions or sputum. The samples are tested for TB bacteria, and the clinician can have the results of special smears in a matter of hours.

Samples may also be sent to a laboratory where they're examined under a microscope as well as placed on a special medium that encourages the growth of bacteria (culture). The bacteria that appear are then tested to see if they respond to the medications commonly used to treat TB. Because TB bacteria grow very slowly, traditional culture tests can take four to eight weeks.

In one embodiment, another test used to diagnose TB infection include the nuclear acid amplification (NAA) test. This test can detect genes associated with drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. However, this test is generally available only in developed countries.

In one embodiment, a test used primarily in developing countries is called the microscopic-observation drug-susceptibility (MODS) assay. It can detect the presence of TB bacteria in sputum in as little as seven days. Additionally, the test can identify drug-resistant strains of the TB bacteria.

It is more difficult to diagnose TB in children than in adults as children may swallow sputum, rather than coughing it out, making it harder to take culture samples. And infants and young children may not react to the skin test. For these reasons, tests from an adult who is likely to have been the cause of the infection may be used to help diagnose TB in a child.

In one embodiment, M. tuberculosis antigens, and DNA sequences encoding such antigens, may be prepared using any of a variety of procedures. For example, soluble antigens may be isolated from M. tuberculosis culture filtrate by procedures known to those of ordinary skill in the art, including anion-exchange and reverse phase chromatography. Purified antigens may then be evaluated for a desired property, such as the ability to react with sera obtained from an M. tuberculosis-infected individual. Such screens may be performed using the representative methods described herein. Antigens may then be partially sequenced using, for example, traditional Edman chemistry. See Edman and Berg, Eur. J. Biochem. 80:116-132, 1967.

Antigens may also be produced recombinantly using a DNA sequence that encodes the antigen, which has been inserted into an expression vector and expressed in an appropriate host. DNA molecules encoding soluble antigens may be isolated by screening an appropriate M. tuberculosis expression library with anti-sera (e.g., rabbit) raised specifically against soluble M. tuberculosis antigens. DNA sequences encoding antigens that may or may not be soluble may be identified by screening an appropriate M. tuberculosis genomic or cDNA expression library with sera obtained from patients infected with M. tuberculosis. Such screens may generally be performed using techniques well known in the art, such as those described in Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989.

DNA sequences encoding soluble antigens may also be obtained by screening an appropriate M. tuberculosis cDNA or genomic DNA library for DNA sequences that hybridize to degenerate oligonucleotides derived from partial amino acid sequences of isolated soluble antigens. Degenerate oligonucleotide sequences for use in such a screen may be designed and synthesized, and the screen may be performed, as described (for example) in Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (and references cited therein). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may also be employed, using the above oligonucleotides in methods well known in the art, to isolate a nucleic acid probe from a cDNA or genomic library. The library screen may then be performed using the isolated probe.

In one embodiment M. tuberculosis antigens include any know in the art, for example, but not limited to, ESAT-6, TB10.4, CFP10, RD1-ORF5, RD1-ORF2, Rv1036, MPB64, MPT64, Ag85A, Ag85B (MPT59), Mtb39, MPB59, Ag85C, 19 kDa lipoprotein, MPT32 and alpha-crystallin, EsxG, Rv2430c, Rv2041c, or at least one T-cell epitope of any of the above mentioned antigens ((Skjot et al, 2000; Danish Patent application PA 2000 00666; Danish Patent application PA 1999 01020; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/0505,739; Rosenkrands et al, 1998; Nagai et al, 1991).

Due to genetic variation, different individuals may react with immune responses of varying strength to the same polypeptide. Therefore, the vaccine according to the invention may comprise several different polypeptides in order to increase the immune response. The vaccine may comprise two or more polypeptides or immunogenic portions, where all of the polypeptides are as defined above, or some but not all of the peptides may be derived from virulent mycobacteria.

In one embodiment of the present invention, “nucleic acids” refers to a string of at least two base-sugar-phosphate combinations. The term includes, in one embodiment, DNA and RNA. “Nucleotides” refers, in one embodiment, to the monomeric units of nucleic acid polymers. RNA may be, in one embodiment, in the form of a tRNA (transfer RNA), snRNA (small nuclear RNA), rRNA (ribosomal RNA), mRNA (messenger RNA), anti-sense RNA, small inhibitory RNA (siRNA), micro RNA (miRNA) and ribozymes. The use of siRNA and miRNA has been described (Caudy A A et al, Genes & Devel 16: 2491-96 and references cited therein). DNA may be in form of plasmid DNA, viral DNA, linear DNA, or chromosomal DNA or derivatives of these groups. In addition, these forms of DNA and RNA may be single, double, triple, or quadruple stranded. The term also includes, in another embodiment, artificial nucleic acids that may contain other types of backbones but the same bases. In one embodiment, the artificial nucleic acid is a PNA (peptide nucleic acid). PNA contain peptide backbones and nucleotide bases and are able to bind, in one embodiment, to both DNA and RNA molecules. In another embodiment, the nucleotide is oxetane modified. In another embodiment, the nucleotide is modified by replacement of one or more phosphodiester bonds with a phosphorothioate bond. In another embodiment, the artificial nucleic acid contains any other variant of the phosphate backbone of native nucleic acids known in the art. The use of phosphothiorate nucleic acids and PNA are known to those skilled in the art, and are described in, for example, Neilsen P E, Curr Opin Struct Biol 9:353-57; and Raz N K et al Biochem Biophys Res Commun 297:1075-84. The production and use of nucleic acids is known to those skilled in art and is described, for example, in Molecular Cloning, (2001), Sambrook and Russell, eds. and Methods in Enzymology: Methods for molecular cloning in eukaryotic cells (2003) Purchio and G. C. Fareed. Each nucleic acid derivative represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

Regardless of the method of preparation, the antigens described herein are “antigenic.” More specifically, the antigens have the ability to react with sera obtained from an M. tuberculosis-infected individual. Reactivity may be evaluated using, for example, the representative ELISA assays described herein, where an absorbance reading with sera from infected individuals that is at least three standard deviations above the absorbance obtained with sera from uninfected individuals is considered positive.

Antigenic portions of M. tuberculosis antigens may be prepared and identified using well known techniques, such as those summarized in Paul, Fundamental Immunology, 3d ed., Raven Press, 1993, pp. 243-247 and references cited therein. Such techniques include screening polypeptide portions of the native antigen for antigenic properties. The representative ELISAs described herein may generally be employed in these screens. An antigenic portion of a polypeptide is a portion that, within such representative assays, generates a signal in such assays that is substantially similar to that generated by the full-length antigen. In other words, an antigenic portion of a M. tuberculosis antigen generates at least about 20%, and preferably about 100%, of the signal induced by the full-length antigen in a model ELISA as described herein.

Portions and other variants of M. tuberculosis antigens may be generated by synthetic or recombinant means. Synthetic polypeptides having fewer than about 100 amino acids, and generally fewer than about 50 amino acids, may be generated using techniques well known in the art. For example, such polypeptides may be synthesized using any of the commercially available solid-phase techniques, such as the Merrifield solid-phase synthesis method, where amino acids are sequentially added to a growing amino acid chain. See Merrifield, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 85:2149-2146, 1963. Equipment for automated synthesis of polypeptides is commercially available from suppliers such as Applied BioSystems, Inc., Foster City, Calif., and may be operated according to the manufacturer's instructions. Variants of a native antigen may generally be prepared using standard mutagenesis techniques, such as oligonucleotide-directed site-specific mutagenesis. Sections of the DNA sequence may also be removed using standard techniques to permit preparation of truncated polypeptides.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of diagnosing a parasitic infection prior to diagnosing an infectious disease.

In one embodiment, the parasite is a helminth. In another embodiment, the helminth is a platyhelminth, which in one embodiment, is a Flatworm. In another embodiment, the platyhelminth is a Cestoda, which in one embodiment is a tapeworm. In another embodiment, the platyhelminth is a Trematode, which in one embodiment is a fluke. In another embodiment, the helminth is a Nematode, which in one embodiment is a roundworm.

In one embodiment, the fluke is a blood fluke, which in one embodiment is a Schistosoma mansoni/japonicum/mekongi/haematobium (Schistosomiasis) or Trichobilharzia regenti (Swimmer's itch), in another embodiment, the fluke is a liver fluke, which in one embodiment is Clonorchis sinensis (Clonorchiasis), Fasciola hepatica/gigantica (Fascioliasis), or Opisthorchis. In another embodiment, the fluke is a lung fluke, which in one embodiment is Paragonimus westermani (Paragonimiasis). In another embodiment, the fluke is an intestinal fluke, which in one embodiment is Fasciolopsis buski (Fasciolopsiasis).

In one embodiment, the cestoda is a Cyclophyllidea, which in one embodiment is Echinococcus granulosus/Echinococcus multilocularis (Echinococcosis), Taenia saginata (beef)/Taenia asiatica/Taenia solium (pork) (Taeniasis/Cysticercosis), or Hymenolepis nana/Hymenolepis diminuta (Hymenolepiasis). In another embodiment, the cestoda is a Pseudophyllidea, which in one embodiment, is Diphyllobothrium latum (Diphyllobothriasis), Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (Sparganosis), or Diphyllobothrium mansonoides (Sparganosis).

In one embodiment, the nematode is Secernentea, which in one embodiment is a Spirurida, Strongylida (hookworm), Ascaridida, Rhabditida, Oxyurida, Camallanina, Spirurina, Filarioidea (Filariasis), Thelazioidea, or Spiruroidea. In one embodiment, the nematode is Dracunculus medinensis (Dracunculiasis) Onchocerca volvulus (Onchocerciasis), Loa loa (Loa loa filariasis), Mansonella (Mansonelliasis), Dirofilaria repens (Dirofilariasis), Filariad species (Wuchereria, and Brugia genus, e.g., Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, Brugia timori), Gnathostoma spinigerum/Gnathostoma hispidum (Gnathostomiasis), Thelazia (Thelaziasis), Gongylonema, Ancylostoma duodenale/Ancylostoma braziliense (Ancylostomiasis, Cutaneous larva migrans), Necator americanus (Necatoriasis), Angiostrongylus cantonensis (Angiostrongyliasis), Angiostrongylus costaricensis, Metastrongylus (Metastrongylosis), Ascaris lumbricoides (Ascariasis), Anisakis (Anisakiasis), Toxocara canis/Toxocara cati (Visceral larva migrans/Toxocariasis), Baylisascaris, Strongyloides stercoralis (Strongyloidiasis), Enterobius vermicularis (Enterobiasis, Pinworm), Trichinella spiralis (Trichinosis), Trichuris trichiura (Trichuriasis, Whipworm), a Stongyloides species, Capillaria philippinensis (Intestinal capillariasis), or Capillaria hepatica.

In one embodiment, the Platyhelminth is, Taeniarhynchus saginatus, Taenirhynchus confusus, Fasciolopsis species, Echinostomes, Hymenolopis diminuta, Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Heterophyes, Vampirolepis nana.

In another embodiment, the parasitic infection is any known in the art to affect a subject as provided herein.

In one embodiment, parasitic infection leads to the development of two subpopulations of CD4⁺ cells that are able to make IL-10 and inhibit CD40 agonist-initiated IL-12 production. Producing IL-10 to suppress the ability of DC to make IL-12 in response to CD40 ligation, facilitates Th2 polarization in mice infected with schistosomes. Hence, in one embodiment, parasitic infection drives immune responses towards Th2, possibly blocking effectiveness of HIV vaccines, leading to false negative results in clinical trials. In another embodiment, parasites significantly suppress the levels of specific IFN-gamma production. In another embodiment, parasites significantly suppress the levels of specific IFN-gamma production during a bacterial, viral, microbial, microorganism, pathogenic, or combination thereof, infection.

Methods for diagnosis of parasitic worm infections include microscopic examination of fecal samples, either directly in fecal smears or following concentration of ova and parasites by flotation in density media, and also in urine. For example, definitive diagnosis of schistosomiasis depends on detection of specific schistosome eggs excreted in stool and urine. This occurs from 5-13 weeks after infection and is determined by worm burden. Thick smears of feces, nucleopore filtration of urine, and formalin-ether concentration techniques for stool or urine are recommended. Collection of urine is usually recommended between noon and 2:00 pm, when excretion of ova is greatest.

Multiple examinations may be required in light or chronic infections. If infections are active, schistosome eggs contain live and mature miracidia. Studies suggest that adult human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1-related immunodeficiency does not impair the ability to excrete eggs in low-intensity infection with S. haematobium, S. mansoni, or both and that infection with HIV-1 may not have major implications for diagnosis and surveillance of schistosomiasis.

It is to be understood that tests including, but not limited to, urinalysis, liver function tests, imaging studies that further include but are not limited to chest radiography ultrasonography of the abdomen and pelvis intravenous pyelography, voiding cystourethrography, head, chest, abdominal, and spinal CT scanning and/or MRI and serological tests for antibodies to parasites are contemplated to be carried out in the present invention for the diagnosis of a parasitic infection.

Other tests include Liver biopsy, cystoscopy, and laparoscopy.

The CDC uses a combination of tests with purified adult worm antigens. The Falcon assay screening test enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (FAST-ELISA) is 99% specific for all species and has a sensitivity of 99% for S. mansoni infection, 95% for S. haematobium, and 50% for S. japonicum. Because of false negative results with the FAST-ELISA, immunoblots using species-specific antigens are performed in cases of potential exposure to S. haematobium and S. japonicum infections. javascript:showcontent(‘active’,‘references’); However, serologic tests cannot distinguish active from past infections.

In some endemic areas, S. japonicum, S. mansoni, and viral hepatitis are the most common causes of chronic liver disease. The hepatitis B surface antigen carrier state has been noted to be 4 times higher in patients with schistosomiasis, the significance of which is uncertain. Different explanations have been proposed for the association of S. mansoni with hepatitis B and include (1) impaired cell-mediated immunity, which reduces host resistance; (2) low socioeconomic conditions and educational levels, which increase the risk of exposure; and (3) repeated treatments in the past with intravenous or parenteral drugs or blood transfusions.

Identification of severity and staging of schistosomal disease is achieved by a combination of the investigations described above. This includes serology, abdominal and perihilar ultrasonography, body CT scanning, endoscopy, cystoscopy, laparoscopy, and histology. Acute schistosomal disease: Changes detected on ultrasonographic studies in acute schistosomiasis (Katayama fever) include focal liver hypoechogenicities that may reflect secondary abscess formation with bacterial superinfection, pleural effusions, and pericardial effusions. Enlarged lymph nodes may reveal an echodense center surrounded by an echopolar halo. Mild schistosomiasis: Laparoscopy reveals that the liver surface is mostly smooth, although multiple whitish markings and irregular wide grooves are observed with more advanced disease. Chronic schistosomiasis: Ultrasonographic features are characteristic and include echogenic thickening of the walls of portal branches and of the portal vein frequently extending to the gall bladder and ligamenta. Moderate schistosomiasis: Ultrasonography reveals areas of high echogenicity, and CT scanning reveals network patterns and lineal calcified spots. Severe schistosomiasis: Laparoscopy reveals a liver surface distorted with blocklike formations of variable size separated by grooved depressions, producing a turtle shell-like appearance. Ultrasonography reveals areas of high echogenicity, and CT scanning reveals network patterns and lineal calcified spots.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating an infection in a subject infected with a parasite. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating an infection in a subject infected with a helminth. In one embodiment, the subject is infected with one parasite and an additional parasite for a total infection with two parasites. In another embodiment, one parasite is a helminth and the additional parasite is a protozoan parasite. In another embodiment, the protozoan parasite is malaria, Leishmania, Toxoplasma, or any other protozoan parasite known in the art. In one embodiment the non-parasite infection is an infectious disease. In another embodiment, the non-parasite infection is a bacterial infection. In another embodiment, the non-parasite infection is tuberculosis. In another embodiment, the non-parasite infection is a viral infection. In another embodiment, the viral infection is HIV.

In one embodiment, the helminth infection is a parasitic infection. In one embodiment, the helminth infection is a parasitic protist infection. In another embodiment, a helminth is a parasitic worm. In one embodiment, the helminth is Schistosoma mansoni.

In one embodiment, the vaccine for use in the methods of the present invention comprises a recombinant Listeria monocytogenes, in any form or embodiment provided herein. In one embodiment, the vaccine for use in the present invention consists of a recombinant Listeria monocytogenes of the present invention, in any form or embodiment provided herein. In another embodiment, the vaccine for use in the methods of the present invention consists essentially of a recombinant Listeria monocytogenes of the present invention, in any form or embodiment provided herein. In one embodiment, the term “comprise” refers to the inclusion of a recombinant Listeria monocytogenes in the vaccine, as well as inclusion of other vaccines or treatments that may be known in the art. In another embodiment, the term “consisting essentially of” refers to a vaccine, whose functional component is the recombinant Listeria monocytogenes, however, other components of the vaccine may be included that are not involved directly in the therapeutic effect of the vaccine and may, for example, refer to components which facilitate the effect of the recombinant Listeria monocytogenes (e.g. stabilizing, preserving, etc.). In another embodiment, the term “consisting” refers to a vaccine, which contains the recombinant Listeria monocytogenes.

In one embodiment, the vaccines provided herein induce antigen-specific vaccine responses toward immunodominant CTL and helper epitopes during chronic helminth infection (see FIGS. 11A & B, and Example 4 herein below). In another embodiment, varying the vaccine dose and regimen does not alter the vaccine response to the immunodominant epitope (See FIG. 12, Example 4 herein below). In another embodiment, several months after the last vaccination, responses to the immunodominant epitope by the effector CTL cells, does not differ between in response to chronic helminth infection (See FIG. 13A, Example 5, herein below).

In one embodiment, Antigen-specific CD8+ T cells are generated in the presence of Schistosome infection and persist for several months at levels comparable to uninfected (see Example 5 herein below).

In one embodiment, responses of effector cells, part of the cell-mediated immune response, are durable and unaltered by pre-existing chronic helminth infection (see Example 6 herein below).

In one embodiment, the vaccines provided herein induce immunological memory (see Example 7, herein below).

In one embodiment, Listeria-based vaccines provided herein induce functional effector cells in a Th2 environment.

In another embodiment, if vaccine responses by the helminth-infected subject, change, vaccine responses are restored after a second boost and/or praziquantel treatment of the helminth infection.

In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention comprise the step of administering a recombinant Listeria monocytogenes, in any form or embodiment as described herein. In one embodiment, the methods of the present invention consist of the step of administering a recombinant Listeria monocytogenes of the present invention, in any form or embodiment as described herein. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention consist essentially of the step of administering a recombinant Listeria monocytogenes of the present invention, in any form or embodiment as described herein. In one embodiment, the term “comprise” refers to the inclusion of the step of administering a recombinant Listeria monocytogenes in the methods, as well as inclusion of other methods or treatments that may be known in the art. In another embodiment, the term “consisting essentially of” refers to a methods, whose functional component is the administration of recombinant Listeria monocytogenes, however, other steps of the methods may be included that are not involved directly in the therapeutic effect of the methods and may, for example, refer to steps which facilitate the effect of the administration of recombinant Listeria monocytogenes. In one embodiment, the term “consisting” refers to a method of administering recombinant Listeria monocytogenes with no additional steps.

In one embodiment, the Listeria monocytogenes fusion protein for use in the methods of the present invention will comprise a microbial, or infectious disease (bacteria, viral, fungal, parasitic, etc.) antigen and LLO, ActA, or a PEST sequence, in any form or embodiment as described herein. In another embodiment, the Listeria monocytogenes fusion protein for use in the present invention will consist of a microbial, or infectious disease (bacteria, viral, fungal, parasitic, etc.) antigen and LLO, ActA, or a PEST sequence of the present invention, in any form or embodiment as described herein. In one embodiment, the Listeria monocytogenes fusion protein for use in the methods of the present invention will consist essentially of a microbial, or infectious disease (bacteria, viral, fungal, parasitic, etc.) antigen and LLO, ActA, or a PEST sequence of the present invention, in any form or embodiment as described herein. In another embodiment, the term “comprise” refers to the inclusion of a microbial, or infectious disease (bacteria, viral, fungal, parasitic, etc.) antigen and LLO, ActA, or a PEST sequence in the Listeria monocytogenes fusion protein, as well as inclusion of other therapeutic heterologous peptides that may be known in the art. In one embodiment, the term “consisting essentially of” refers to a Listeria monocytogenes fusion protein, whose functional component is a microbial, or infectious disease (bacteria, viral, fungal, parasitic, etc.) antigen and LLO, ActA, or a PEST sequence, however, other heterologous sequences may be included that are not involved directly in the therapeutic effect of the Listeria monocytogenes fusion protein and may, for example, refer to components which facilitate the effect of the fusion protein. In another embodiment, the term “consisting” refers to a Listeria monocytogenes fusion protein, which contains only a microbial, or infectious disease (bacteria, viral, fungal, parasitic, etc.) antigen and LLO, ActA, or a PEST sequence.

In one embodiment, the Listeria monocytogenes for use in the methods of the present invention will express and secrete a microbial or infectious disease (bacteria, viral, fungal, parasitic, etc.) antigen, in any form or embodiment as described herein in addition to other heterologous, therapeutic peptides. In one embodiment, the Listeria monocytogenes for use in the present invention will express and secrete a microbial or viral or infectious disease (bacteria, viral, fungal, parasitic, etc.) antigen of the present invention, in any form or embodiment as described herein in addition to other heterologous, non-therapeutic peptides. In one embodiment, the Listeria monocytogenes for use in the methods of the present invention will express and secrete a microbial or infectious disease (bacteria, viral, fungal, parasitic, etc.) antigen of the present invention, in any form or embodiment as described herein, but without the expression or secretion of other heterologous peptides.

In one embodiment, the recombinant Listeria monocytogenes for use in the present invention secretes a heterologous peptide. In another embodiment, the recombinant Listeria monocytogenes for use in the present invention expresses a heterologous peptide. In another embodiment, the recombinant Listeria monocytogenes for use in the present invention expresses and secretes a heterologous peptide, as described herein. In another embodiment, the heterologous peptide is derived from a bacterial, viral, microbial, microorganism, pathogenic, or combination thereof, infection.

In one embodiment, attenuated Listeria strains, such as LM delta-actA mutant (Brundage et al, 1993, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, 90:11890-11894), L. monocytogenes delta-plcA (Camilli et al, 1991, J. Exp. Med., 173:751-754), or delta-ActA, delta INL-b (Brockstedt et 5 al, 2004, PNAS, 101:13832-13837) are used in the present invention. In another embodiment, attenuated Listeria strains are constructed by introducing one or more attenuating mutations, as will be understood by one of average skill in the art when equipped with the disclosure herein. Examples of such strains include, but are not limited to Listeria strains auxotrophic for aromatic amino acids (Alexander et al, 1993, Infection and Immunity 10 61:2245-2248) and mutant for the formation of lipoteichoic acids (Abachin et al, 2002, Mol. Microbiol. 43:1-14) and those attenuated by a lack of a virulence gene. In another embodiment, the recombinant Listeria provided herein lacks an ActA gene.

In one embodiment, the recombinant Listeria monocytogenes vaccine provided herein overcomes helminth-induced suppression of Th1-mediated response to induce an infectious disease-specific cell mediated immune response. In another embodiment, the recombinant Listeria monocytogenes vaccine provided herein skews the immune response in a helminth-infected subject from Th2 to Th1. In another embodiment, administration of a Listeria vector-HIV-1 gag vaccine, developed to a subject chronically infected with the helminth parasite Schistosoma mansoni, drives significant immune responses to HIV-1 gag CTL and T helper epitopes. In another embodiment, Listeria vector vaccines are capable of driving vaccine-specific immune responses in helminth infected populations.

In another embodiment, anthelmintic drugs and/or antibiotics are used in conjunction with the vaccine for use in the methods of the present invention. In one embodiment, the anthelmintic drugs are albendazole, benzimidazole, imidothiazole/morantel, macrocyclic lactones, Ivermectin, rafoxanide. In one embodiment, the antibiotics are rifampicin, isoniazid, or a combination thereof.

The vaccine combination of the invention typically includes as one of the vaccines a nucleic acid vaccine, preferably DNA. Nucleic acid vaccines as defined herein, typically plasmid expression vectors, are not encapsidated in a viral particle. The nucleic acid vaccine is directly introduced into the cells of the individual receiving the vaccine regimen. This approach is described, for instance, in Wolff et. al., Science 247:1465 (1990) as well as U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,580,859; 5,589,466; 5,804,566; 5,739,118; 5,736,524; 5,679,647; and WO 98/04720. Examples of DNA-based delivery technologies include, “naked DNA”, facilitated (bupivicaine, polymers, peptide-mediated) delivery, and cationic lipid complexes or liposomes. The nucleic acids can be administered using ballistic delivery as described, for instance, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,204,253 or pressure (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,922,687). Using this technique, particles comprised solely of DNA are administered, or in an alternative embodiment, the DNA can be adhered to particles, such as gold particles, for administration.

As is well known in the art, a large number of factors can influence the efficiency of expression of antigen genes and/or the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines. Examples of such factors include the reproducibility of inoculation, construction of the plasmid vector, choice of the promoter used to drive antigen gene expression and stability of the inserted gene in the plasmid.

Any of the conventional vectors used for expression in eukaryotic cells may be used for directly introducing DNA into tissue. Expression vectors containing regulatory elements from eukaryotic viruses are typically used in eukaryotic expression vectors, e.g., SV40 CMB vectors. Other exemplary eukaryotic vectors include pMSG, pAV009/A+, pMT010/A+, pMAMneo-5, and any other vector allowing expression of proteins under the direction of such promoters as the SV40 early promoter, SV40 later promoter, metallothionein promoter, human cytomegalovirus promoter, murine mammary tumor virus promoter, Rous sarcoma virus promoter, polyhedrin promoter, or other promoters shown effective for expression in eukaryotic cells.

Therapeutic quantities of plasmid DNA can be produced for example, by fermentation in E. coli, followed by purification. Aliquots from the working cell bank are used to inoculate growth medium, and grown to saturation in shaker flasks or a bioreactor according to well known techniques. Plasmid DNA can be purified using standard bioseparation technologies such as solid phase anion-exchange resins. If required, supercoiled DNA can be isolated from the open circular and linear forms using gel electrophoresis or other methods.

Recombinant polypeptides containing portions and/or variants of a native antigen may be readily prepared from a DNA sequence encoding the polypeptide using a variety of techniques well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, supernatants from suitable host/vector systems, which secrete recombinant protein into culture media, may be first concentrated using a commercially available filter. Following concentration, the concentrate may be applied to a suitable purification matrix such as an affinity matrix or an ion exchange resin. Finally, one or more reverse phase HPLC steps can be employed to further purify a recombinant protein.

Protein and/or peptide homology for any amino acid sequence listed herein is determined, in one embodiment, by methods well described in the art, including immunoblot analysis, or via computer algorithm analysis of amino acid sequences, utilizing any of a number of software packages available, via established methods. Some of these packages may include the FASTA, BLAST, MPsrch or Scanps packages, and may employ the use of the Smith and Waterman algorithms, and/or global/local or BLOCKS alignments for analysis, for example. Each method of determining homology represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

Any of a variety of expression vectors known to those of ordinary skill in the art may be employed to express recombinant polypeptides as described herein. Expression may be achieved in any appropriate host cell that has been transformed or transfected with an expression vector containing a DNA molecule that encodes a recombinant polypeptide. Suitable host cells include prokaryotes, yeast and higher eukaryotic cells. Preferably, the host cells employed are E. coli, yeast or a mammalian cell line, such as COS or CHO. The DNA sequences expressed in this manner may encode naturally occurring antigens, portions of naturally occurring antigens, or other variants thereof.

In general, regardless of the method of preparation, the polypeptides disclosed herein are prepared in substantially pure form. Preferably, the polypeptides are at least about 80% pure, more preferably at least about 90% pure and most preferably at least about 99% pure. For use in the methods described herein, however, such substantially pure polypeptides may be combined.

In one embodiment, the vaccines of the present invention comprise an adjuvant, while in another embodiment, the vaccines do not comprise an adjuvant. The term “Adjuvant” refers, in another embodiment, to compounds that, when administered to an individual or tested in vitro, increase the immune response to an antigen in the individual or test system to which the antigen is administered. In another embodiment, an immune adjuvant enhances an immune response to an antigen that is weakly immunogenic when administered alone, i.e., inducing no or weak antibody titers or cell-mediated immune response. In another embodiment, the adjuvant increases antibody titers to the antigen. In another embodiment, the adjuvant lowers the dose of the antigen effective to achieve an immune response in the individual.

The adjuvant utilized in methods and compositions of the present invention is, in another embodiment, a CpG-containing nucleotide sequence. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a CpG-containing oligonucleotide. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a CpG-containing oligodeoxynucleotide (CpG ODN). In another embodiment, the adjuvant is ODN 1826. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is an aluminum salt adjuvant. In another embodiment, the aluminum salt adjuvant is an alum-precipitated vaccine. In another embodiment, the aluminum salt adjuvant is an alum-adsorbed vaccine. Aluminum-salt adjuvants are well known in the art and are described, for example, in Harlow, E. and D. Lane (1988; Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) and Nicklas, W. (1992; Aluminum salts. Research in Immunology 143:489-493).

In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a Montanide ISA adjuvant. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a trimer of complement component C3d. In another embodiment, the trimer is covalently linked to the protein immunogen. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is MF59. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) protein. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising a GM-CSF protein. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a nucleotide molecule encoding GM-CSF. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising a nucleotide molecule encoding GM-CSF. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is saponin QS21. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising saponin QS21. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL). In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising MPL. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is SBAS2. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising SBAS2. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is an unmethylated CpG-containing oligonucleotide. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising an unmethylated CpG-containing oligonucleotide. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is an immune-stimulating cytokine. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising an immune-stimulating cytokine. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a nucleotide molecule encoding an immune-stimulating cytokine. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising a nucleotide molecule encoding an immune-stimulating cytokine. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising a quill glycoside. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising a bacterial mitogen. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising a bacterial toxin. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture comprising any other adjuvant known in the art. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture of 2 of the above adjuvants. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture of 3 of the above adjuvants. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a mixture of more than three of the above adjuvants.

In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention further comprise the step of administering to the subject a booster vaccination. In one embodiment, the booster vaccination follows a single priming vaccination. In another embodiment, a single booster vaccination is administered after the priming vaccinations. In another embodiment, two booster vaccinations are administered after the priming vaccinations. In another embodiment, three booster vaccinations are administered after the priming vaccinations. In one embodiment, the period between a prime and a boost vaccine is experimentally determined by the skilled artisan. In another embodiment, the period between a prime and a boost vaccine is 1 week, in another embodiment it is 2 weeks, in another embodiment, it is 3 weeks, in another embodiment, it is 4 weeks, in another embodiment, it is 5 weeks, in another embodiment it is 6-8 weeks, in yet another embodiment, the boost vaccine is administered 8-10 weeks after the prime vaccine.

In another embodiment, the booster vaccination comprises the use of an alternate form of a vaccine different to that of the priming vaccine. In another embodiment, the different or alternate form of the vaccine is a DNA vaccine encoding the fusion protein, a recombinant polypeptide comprising said fusion protein, a viral vector or a live recombinant Listeria vaccine vector. In another embodiment, the viral vector is an adenoviral vector.

Heterologous “prime boost” strategies have been effective for enhancing immune responses and protection against numerous pathogens. Schneider et al., Immunol. Rev. 170:29-38 (1999); Robinson, H. L., Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2:239-50 (2002); Gonzalo, R. M. et al., Vaccine 20:1226-31 (2002); Tanghe, A., Infect. Immun 69:3041-7 (2001). Providing antigen in different forms in the prime and the boost injections appears to maximize the immune response to the antigen. DNA vaccine priming followed by boosting with protein in adjuvant or by viral vector delivery of DNA encoding antigen appears to be the most effective way of improving antigen specific antibody and CD4+ T-cell responses or CD8+ T-cell responses respectively. Shiver J. W. et al., Nature 415: 331-5 (2002); Gilbert, S. C. et al., Vaccine 20:1039-45 (2002); Billaut-Mulot, O. et al., Vaccine 19:95-102 (2000); Sin, J. I. et al., DNA Cell Biol. 18:771-9 (1999). Recent data from monkey vaccination studies suggests that adding CRL1005 poloxamer (12 kDa, 5% POE), to DNA encoding the HIV gag antigen enhances T-cell responses when monkeys are vaccinated with an HIV gag DNA prime followed by a boost with an adenoviral vector expressing HIV gag (Ad5-gag). The cellular immune responses for a DNA/poloxamer prime followed by an Ad5-gag boost were greater than the responses induced with a DNA (without poloxamer) prime followed by Ad5-gag boost or for Ad5-gag only. Shiver, J. W. et al. Nature 415:331-5 (2002). U.S. Patent Appl. Publication No. US 2002/0165172 A1 describes simultaneous administration of a vector construct encoding an immunogenic portion of an antigen and a protein comprising the immunogenic portion of an antigen such that an immune response is generated. The document is limited to hepatitis B antigens and HIV antigens. Moreover, U.S. Pat. No. 6,500,432 is directed to methods of enhancing an immune response of nucleic acid vaccination by simultaneous administration of a polynucleotide and polypeptide of interest. According to the patent, simultaneous administration means administration of the polynucleotide and the polypeptide during the same immune response, preferably within 0-10 or 3-7 days of each other. The antigens contemplated by the patent include, among others, those of Hepatitis (all forms), HSV, HIV, CMV, EBV, RSV, VZV, HPV, polio, influenza, parasites (e.g., from the genus Plasmodium), and pathogenic bacteria (including but not limited to M. tuberculosis, M. leprae, Chlamydia, Shigella, B. burgdorferi, enterotoxigenic E. coli, S. typhosa, H. pylori, V. cholerae, B. pertussis, etc.). All of the above references are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties.

In another embodiment, the nucleic acid molecule of the methods and compositions of the present invention is operably linked to a promoter/regulatory sequence. In another embodiment, the first open reading frame of methods and compositions of the present invention is operably linked to a promoter/regulatory sequence. In another embodiment, the second open reading frame of methods and compositions of the present invention is operably linked to a promoter/regulatory sequence. In another embodiment, each of the open reading frames are operably linked to a promoter/regulatory sequence. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

The skilled artisan, when equipped with the present disclosure and the methods provided herein, will readily understand that different transcriptional promoters, terminators, carrier vectors or specific gene sequences (e.g. those in commercially available cloning vectors) can be used successfully in methods and compositions of the present invention. As is contemplated in the present invention, these functionalities are provided in, for example, the commercially available vectors known as the pUC series. In another embodiment, non-essential DNA sequences (e.g. antibiotic resistance genes) are removed. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. In another embodiment, a commercially available plasmid is used in the present invention that can be constructed using methods well known in the art.

Another embodiment is a plasmid such as pCR2.1 (Invitrogen, La Jolla, Calif.), which is a prokaryotic expression vector with a prokaryotic origin of replication and promoter/regulatory elements to facilitate expression in a prokaryotic organism. In another embodiment, extraneous nucleotide sequences are removed to decrease the size of the plasmid and increase the size of the cassette that can be placed therein.

Such methods are well known in the art, and are described in, for example, Sambrook et al. (1989, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York) and Ausubei et al. (1997, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Green & Wiley, New York).

In one embodiment, antibiotic resistance genes are used in the conventional selection and cloning processes commonly employed in molecular biology and vaccine preparation. Antibiotic resistance genes contemplated in the present invention include, but are not limited to, gene products that confer resistance to ampicillin, penicillin, methicillin, streptomycin, erythromycin, kanamycin, tetracycline, cloramphenicol (CAT), neomycin, hygromycin, gentamicin and others well known in the art. Each gene represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

Methods for transforming bacteria are well known in the art, and include calcium-chloride competent cell-based methods, electroporation methods, bacteriophage-mediated transduction, chemical, and physical transformation techniques (de Boer et al, 1989, Cell 56:641-649; Miller et al, 1995, FASEB J., 9:190-199; Sambrook et al. 1989, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York; Ausubel et al., 1997, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, New York; Gerhardt et al., eds., 1994, Methods for General and Molecular Bacteriology, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.; Miller, 1992, A Short Course in Bacterial Genetics, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.) In another embodiment, the Listeria vaccine strain of the present invention is transformed by electroporation. Each method represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

In another embodiment, conjugation is used to introduce genetic material and/or plasmids into bacteria. Methods for conjugation are well known in the art, and are described, for example, in Nikodinovic J et al. (A second generation snp-derived Escherichia coli-Streptomyces shuttle expression vector that is generally transferable by conjugation. Plasmid. 2006 November; 56(3):223-7) and Auchtung J M et al (Regulation of a Bacillus subtilis mobile genetic element by intercellular signaling and the global DNA damage response. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2005 Aug. 30; 102 (35):12554-9). Each method represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

“Transforming,” in one embodiment, is used identically with the term “transfecting,” and refers to engineering a bacterial cell to take up a plasmid or other heterologous DNA molecule. In another embodiment, “transforming” refers to engineering a bacterial cell to express a gene of a plasmid or other heterologous DNA molecule. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

Plasmids and other expression vectors useful in the present invention are described elsewhere herein, and can include such features as a promoter/regulatory sequence, an origin of replication for gram negative and gram positive bacteria, an isolated nucleic acid encoding a fusion protein and an isolated nucleic acid encoding an amino acid metabolism gene. Further, an isolated nucleic acid encoding a fusion protein and an amino acid metabolism gene will have a promoter suitable for driving expression of such an isolated nucleic acid. Promoters useful for driving expression in a bacterial system are well known in the art, and include bacteriophage lambda, the bla promoter of the beta-lactamase gene of pBR322, and the CAT promoter of the chloramphenicol acetyl transferase gene of pBR325. Further examples of prokaryotic promoters include the major right and left promoters of 5 bacteriophage lambda (PL and PR), the trp, recA, lacZ, lad, and gal promoters of E. coli, the alpha-amylase (Ulmanen et al, 1985. J. Bacteriol. 162:176-182) and the S28-specific promoters of B. subtilis (Gilman et al, 1984 Gene 32:11-20), the promoters of the bacteriophages of Bacillus (Gryczan, 1982, In: The Molecular Biology of the Bacilli, Academic Press, Inc., New York), and Streptomyces promoters (Ward et al, 1986, Mol. Gen. Genet. 203:468-478). Additional prokaryotic promoters contemplated in the present invention are reviewed in, for example, Glick (1987, J. Ind. Microbiol. 1:277-282); Cenatiempo, (1986, Biochimie, 68:505-516); and Gottesman, (1984, Ann. Rev. Genet. 18:415-442). Further examples of promoter/regulatory elements contemplated in the present invention include, but are not limited to the Listerial prfA promoter, the Listerial hly promoter, the Listerial p60 promoter and the Listerial ActA promoter (GenBank Acc. No. NC_(—)003210) or fragments thereof.

In another embodiment, a plasmid of methods and compositions of the present invention comprises a gene encoding a fusion protein. In another embodiment, subsequences are cloned and the appropriate subsequences cleaved using appropriate restriction enzymes. The fragments are then, in another embodiment, ligated to produce the desired DNA sequence. In another embodiment, DNA encoding the antigen is produced using DNA amplification methods, for example polymerase chain reaction (PCR). First, the segments of the native DNA on either side of the new terminus are amplified separately. The 5′ end of the one amplified sequence encodes the peptide linker, while the 3′ end of the other amplified sequence also encodes the peptide linker. Since the 5′ end of the first fragment is complementary to the 3′ end of the second fragment, the two fragments (after partial purification, e.g. on LMP agarose) can be used as an overlapping template in a third PCR reaction. The amplified sequence will contain codons, the segment on the carboxy side of the opening site (now forming the amino sequence), the linker, and the sequence on the amino side of the opening site (now forming the carboxyl sequence). The antigen is ligated into a plasmid. Each method represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

In another embodiment, the present invention further comprises a phage based chromosomal integration system for clinical applications. In another embodiment, in order to avoid a “phage curing step,” a phage integration system based on PSA is used (Lauer, et al., 2002 J Bacteriol, 184:4177-4186). This requires, in another embodiment, continuous selection by antibiotics to maintain the integrated gene. Thus, in another embodiment, the current invention enables the establishment of a phage based chromosomal integration system that does not require selection with antibiotics. Instead, an auxotrophic host strain is complemented.

The recombinant proteins of the present invention are synthesized, in another embodiment, using recombinant DNA methodology. This involves, in one embodiment, creating a DNA sequence that encodes the fusion protein, placing the DNA in an expression cassette, such as the plasmid of the present invention, under the control of a particular promoter/regulatory element, and expressing the protein. DNA encoding the fusion protein (e.g. non-hemolytic LLO/antigen) of the present invention is prepared, in another embodiment, by any suitable method, including, for example, cloning and restriction of appropriate sequences or direct chemical synthesis by methods such as the phosphotriester method of Narang et al. (1979, Meth. Enzymol. 68: 90-99); the phosphodiester method of Brown et al. (1979, Meth. Enzymol 68: 109-151); the diethylphosphoramidite method of Beaucage et al. (1981, Tetra. Lett., 22: 15 1859-1862); and the solid support method of U.S. Pat. No. 4,458,066.

In another embodiment, chemical synthesis is used to produce a single stranded oligonucleotide. This single stranded oligonucleotide is converted, in various embodiments, into double stranded DNA by hybridization with a complementary sequence, or by polymerization with a DNA polymerase using the single strand as a template. One of skill in the art would recognize that while chemical synthesis of DNA is limited to sequences of about 100 bases, longer sequences can be obtained by the ligation of shorter sequences. In another embodiment, subsequences are cloned and the appropriate subsequences cleaved using appropriate restriction enzymes. The fragments are then be ligated to produce the desired DNA sequence.

In another embodiment, DNA encoding the fusion protein or the recombinant protein of the present invention is cloned using DNA amplification methods such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Thus, the gene for non-hemolytic LLO is PCR amplified, using a sense primer comprising a suitable restriction site and an antisense primer comprising another restriction site, e.g. a non-identical restriction site to facilitate cloning. The same is repeated for the isolated nucleic acid encoding an antigen. Ligation of the non-hemolytic LLO and antigen sequences and insertion into a plasmid or vector produces a vector encoding non-hemolytic LLO joined to a terminus of the antigen. The two molecules are joined either directly or by a short spacer introduced by the restriction site.

In another embodiment, the molecules are separated by a peptide spacer consisting of one or more amino acids, generally the spacer will have no specific biological activity other than to join the proteins or to preserve some minimum distance or other spatial relationship between them. In another embodiment, the constituent amino acids of the spacer are selected to influence some property of the molecule such as the folding, net charge, or hydrophobicity. In another embodiment, the nucleic acid sequences encoding the fusion or recombinant proteins are transformed into a variety of host cells, including E. coli, other bacterial hosts, such as Listeria, yeast, and various higher eukaryotic cells such as the COS, CHO and HeLa cells lines and myeloma cell lines. The recombinant fusion protein gene will be operably linked to appropriate expression control sequences for each host. Promoter/regulatory sequences are described in detail elsewhere herein. In another embodiment, the plasmid further comprises additional promoter regulatory elements, as well as a ribosome binding site and a transcription termination signal. For eukaryotic cells, the control sequences will include a promoter and an enhancer derived from e.g. immunoglobulin genes, SV40, cytomegalovirus, etc., and a polyadenylation sequence. In another embodiment, the sequences include splice donor and acceptor sequences.

In one embodiment, the term “operably linked” refers to a juxtaposition wherein the components so described are in a relationship permitting them to function in their intended manner. A control sequence “operably linked” to a coding sequence is ligated in such a way that expression of the coding sequence is achieved under conditions compatible with the control sequences.

In another embodiment, in order to select for an auxotrophic bacteria comprising the plasmid, transformed auxotrophic bacteria are grown on a media that will select for expression of the amino acid metabolism gene. In another embodiment, a bacteria auxotrophic for D-glutamic acid synthesis is transformed with a plasmid comprising a gene for D-glutamic acid synthesis, and the auxotrophic bacteria grow in the absence of D-glutamic acid, whereas auxotrophic bacteria that have not been transformed with the plasmid, or are not expressing the plasmid encoding a protein for D-glutamic acid synthesis, do not grow. In another embodiment, a bacterium auxotrophic for D-alanine synthesis will grow in the absence of D-alanine when transformed and expressing the plasmid of the present invention if the plasmid comprises an isolated nucleic acid encoding an amino acid metabolism enzyme for D-alanine synthesis. Such methods for making appropriate media comprising or lacking necessary growth factors, supplements, amino acids, vitamins, antibiotics, and the like are well known in the art, and are available commercially (Becton-Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, N.J.). Each method represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

In another embodiment, once the auxotrophic bacteria comprising the plasmid of the present invention have been selected on appropriate media, the bacteria are propagated in the presence of a selective pressure. Such propagation comprises growing the bacteria in media without the auxotrophic factor. The presence of the plasmid expressing an amino acid metabolism enzyme in the auxotrophic bacteria ensures that the plasmid will replicate along with the bacteria, thus continually selecting for bacteria harboring the plasmid. The skilled artisan, when equipped with the present disclosure and methods herein will be readily able to scale-up the production of the Listeria vaccine vector by adjusting the volume of the media in which the auxotrophic bacteria comprising the plasmid are growing.

The skilled artisan will appreciate that, in another embodiment, other auxotroph strains and complementation systems are adopted for the use with this invention.

In one embodiment, the Listeria vaccine vector provided herein is a recombinant Listeria strain, wherein in another embodiment it is a recombinant Listeria monocytogenes strain. In another embodiment, the recombinant Listeria strain is an auxotrophic Listeria strain. In another embodiment, the recombinant Listeria strain o is a dal/dat mutant. In another embodiment, the recombinant Listeria strain of comprises an episomal expression vector comprising a metabolic enzyme that complements the auxotrophy of said auxotrophic Listeria strain. In another embodiment, the recombinant Listeria strain comprises an amino acid metabolism enzyme. In another embodiment, the metabolic enzyme catalyzes a formation of an amino acid used for a cell wall synthesis in said recombinant Listeria strain. In another embodiment, the metabolic enzyme is an alanine racemase enzyme. In another embodiment, the metabolic enzyme is a D-amino acid transferase enzyme.

In one embodiment, the recombinant Listeria strain provided herein been passaged through an animal host.

In another embodiment, the vaccines and immunogenic compositions utilized in any of the methods described above have any of the characteristics of vaccines and immunogenic compositions of the present invention. Each characteristic represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

Various embodiments of dosage ranges are contemplated by this invention. In one embodiment, in the case of vaccine vectors, the dosage is in the range of 0.4 LD₅₀/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is from about 0.4-4.9 LD₅₀/dose. In another embodiment the dosage is from about 0.5-0.59 LD₅₀/dose. In another embodiment the dosage is from about 0.6-0.69 LD₅₀/dose. In another embodiment the dosage is from about 0.7-0.79 LD₅₀/dose. In another embodiment the dosage is about 0.8 LD₅₀/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 0.4 LD₅₀/dose to 0.8 of the LD₅₀/dose.

In another embodiment, the dosage is 10⁷ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1.5×10⁷ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 2×10⁷ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 3×10⁷ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 4×10⁷ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 6×10⁷ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 8×10⁷ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1×10⁸ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1.5×10⁸ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 2×10⁸ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 3×10⁸ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 4×10⁸ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 6×10⁸ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 8×10⁸ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1×10⁹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1.5×10⁹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 2×10⁹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 3×10⁹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 5×10⁹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 6×10⁹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 8×10⁹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1×10¹⁰ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1.5×10¹⁰ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 2×10¹⁰ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 3×10¹⁰ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 5×10¹⁰ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 6×10¹⁰ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 8×10¹⁰ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 8×10⁹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1×10¹¹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1.5×10¹¹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 2×10¹¹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 3×10¹¹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 5×10¹¹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 6×10¹¹ bacteria/dose. In another embodiment, the dosage is 8×10¹¹ bacteria/dose. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a kit comprising a reagent utilized in performing a method of the present invention. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a kit comprising a composition, tool, or instrument of the present invention.

The pharmaceutical compositions containing vaccines and compositions of the present invention are, in another embodiment, administered to a subject by any method known to a person skilled in the art, such as parenterally, paracancerally, transmucosally, transdermally, intramuscularly, intravenously, intra-dermally, subcutaneously, intra-peritonealy, intra-ventricularly, intra-cranially, intra-vaginally or intra-tumorally.

In another embodiment of the methods and compositions provided herein, the vaccines or compositions are administered orally, and are thus formulated in a form suitable for oral administration, i.e. as a solid or a liquid preparation. Suitable solid oral formulations include tablets, capsules, pills, granules, pellets and the like. Suitable liquid oral formulations include solutions, suspensions, dispersions, emulsions, oils and the like. In another embodiment of the present invention, the active ingredient is formulated in a capsule. In accordance with this embodiment, the compositions of the present invention comprise, in addition to the active compound and the inert carrier or diluent, a hard gelating capsule.

In another embodiment, the vaccines or compositions are administered by intravenous, intra-arterial, or intra-muscular injection of a liquid preparation. Suitable liquid formulations include solutions, suspensions, dispersions, emulsions, oils and the like. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered intravenously and are thus formulated in a form suitable for intravenous administration. In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered intra-arterially and are thus formulated in a form suitable for intra-arterial administration. In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered intra-muscularly and are thus formulated in a form suitable for intra-muscular administration.

The term “therapeutically effective dose” or “therapeutic effective amount” means a dose that produces the desired effect for which it is administered. The exact dose will be ascertainable by one skilled in the art using known techniques.

The term “subject” or “patient” refers a human at risk of having or actually having HIV, tuberculosis, malaria or any other infectious disease as provided herein. It also refers to a human having or at the risk of having a parasitic infection. The term “subject” does not exclude an individual that is normal in all respects. Moreover, the terms “subject,” “host,” “patient,” and “individual” are used interchangeably herein to refer to any mammalian subject for whom diagnosis or therapy is desired, particularly humans. Other subjects may include cattle, dogs, cats, guinea pigs, rabbits, rats, mice, horses, and so on.

The term “about” as used herein means in quantitative terms plus or minus 5%, or in another embodiment plus or minus 10%, or in another embodiment plus or minus 15%, or in another embodiment plus or minus 20%.

The following examples are presented in order to more fully illustrate the preferred embodiments of the invention. They should in no way be construed, however, as limiting the broad scope of the invention.

EXAMPLES Materials and Methods

Parasites and Mice

Female Balb/c mice (Harlan) were infected with 35-50 infectious cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection. For Schistosome-infected mice, the helminth infection was verified by the presence of anti-egg and/or anti-worm antibodies by ELISA in sera collected at 10 weeks post-infection.

Bacterial Strains

Lm-Gag refers to a recombinant strain of L. monocytogenes, which carries a copy of the HIV-1 strain HXB gag gene stably integrated into the listerial chromosome and which secretes the gag gene product as determined by Western blotting. The strain was grown in brain/heart infusion (BHI) medium (Difco, Detroit, Mich.).

Vaccination of Mice

Female Balb/c mice were primed i.p. with 0.2 (or 0.1, as indicated) LD₅₀ Listeria-vector HIV-1 vaccine (Lm-gag, from Y. Paterson, University of Pennsylvania), control Listeria-vector HPV vaccine (Lm-E7, from Y. Paterson, University of Pennsylvania) or left unvaccinated. Mice were boosted two weeks after the prime in an identical manner.

Analysis of T-Cell Responses

Two weeks after the final immunization, mice were sacrificed, spleens were collected from individual mice and splenocytes were prepared using standard methodology. In brief, splenocytes were cultured in 24-well plates with Ag at 37° C. in 1 ml of RPMI 1640 supplemented with 10% FBS, 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 mg/ml streptomycin, 2 mM L-glutamine, and 50 mM 2-ME. After 3 days, supernatants of duplicate cultures were collected and stored at 22° C. until samples were tested for cytokines by ELISA.

For cytokine analysis by ELISA, splenocytes were harvested and plated at 1.5 million cells per well in 48-well plates in the presence of media, SEA or conA (as a positive control). After incubation for 72 hours, supernatants were harvested and analyzed for cytokine level by ELISA (BD). For antigen-specific IFN-γ ELISpot, splenocytes were harvested and plated at 300K and 150K cells per well in IFN-γ ELISpot plates in the presence of media, specific CTL peptide, irrelevant peptide, specific helper peptide or conA (as a positive control). After incubation for 20 hours, ELISpots (BD) were performed and spots counted by the Immunospot analyzer (C.T.L.). Number of spots per million splenocytes were graphed.

Splenocytes were counted using a Coulter Counter, Z1 (Beckman Coulter Inc., Fullerton, Calif., USA). The frequency of IFN-γ producing CD8+ T cells after re-stimulation with gag-CTL, gag-helper, medium, an irrelevant antigen, and con A (positive control) was determined using a standard IFN-γ-based ELISPOT assay.

Briefly, IFN-γ was detected using the mAb R46-A2 at 5 mg/ml and polyclonal rabbit anti-IFN-γ used at an optimal dilution (kindly provided by Dr Phillip Scott, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.). The levels of IFN-γ were calculated by comparison with a standard curve using murine rIFN-γ. Plates were developed using a peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG Ab (IFN-γ). Plates were then read at 405 nm. The lower limit of detection for the assays was 30 pg/ml.

ELISA

At 2 weeks post last vaccination (wplv), splenocytes were harvested and plated at 1.5 million cells per well in 48-well plates in the presence of media, 25 ng/ml Schistosome soluble egg antigen (SEA) or 1 μg/ml concanavalin A (conA, as a positive control). After incubation for 72 hours, supernatants were harvested and analyzed for levels of IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-10 by ELISA (Becton Dickinson), according to manufacturer's protocol.

ELISpot

Two wplv, splenocytes were harvested and plated at 300K and 150K cells per well in IFN-γ ELISpot plates (Becton Dickinson). The splenocytes were re-stimulated in the presence of media, 20 μM specific CTL peptide (H2-Kd-restricted, AMQMLKETI (Seq. ID. No. 1) from HIV-1 IIIB gag protein), 20 μM irrelevant peptide (H2-Kd-restricted, TYQRTRALV (Seq. ID. No. 2) from influenza nucleoprotein), 20 μM specific helper peptide (H2-d-restricted, NPPIPVGEIYKRWIILGLNK (Seq. ID. No. 3) from HIV-1 IIIB gag protein) or 1 μg/ml con A (as a positive control). Peptides were synthesized by Biosynthesis, Inc at greater than 95% purity. After incubation for 20 hours, ELISpots were performed according to manufacturer's instructions, counted using an Immunospot analyzer (C.T.L.), and graphed as number of spots per million splenocytes for the CTL and helper immunodominant epitopes.

Flow Cytometry.

Splenocytes were stained with gag-tetramer (H2-Kd+AMQMLKETI (Seq. ID. No. 1), Beckman Coulter) and anti-CD8, anti-CD62L and anti-CD197 antibodies (Becton Dickinson). Live cells (as indicated by using a LIVE/DEAD fixable dye, Invitrogen) were acquired and analyzed using an LSRII flow cytometer running FACSDiva (Becton Dickinson).

In Vivo Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte (CTL) Assay.

Target cells (splenocytes from naïve, syngeneic mice) were fluorescently labeled green (Vybrant CFDA SE Cell Tracer Kit, Invitrogen) or purple (CellTrace Violet Cell Proliferation Kit, Invitrogen), according to manufacturer's instructions. Cells were washed and then pulsed for 2 hours with 20 μM specific CTL or irrelevant peptide, respectively. Targets were mixed and one million cells were injected intravenously per vaccinated animal. After overnight (20 h) in vivo killing, splenocytes were collected and analyzed by flow cytometry for target recovery. Samples with >100 targets recovered are plotted.

Statistical Analysis

For pooled data, t test (two tailed, unpaired, unequal variance) was employed to determine if the original vaccine (0.2 Lm-gag P+B in a healthy mouse) differed from any of the vaccination strategies in the Schisto infected mouse. Values for both CTL and helper epitopes were compared and the p values are listed in Table 1.

Example 1 Vaccine Efficacy in a Model of Chronic Helminth Infection

A chronic Schistosoma mansoni infection is established in mice as a model of chronic helminth infection prior to vaccination with the Listeria-vector vaccines (FIG. 1). A hallmark of chronic helminth infection is Th2 biasing of the immune system, which is observed in the chronic schistosomiasis model used throughout this study (FIG. 2). Helminth-infected, Listeria HIV-1-vaccinated mice are Th2 biased and immune suppressed, as indicated by a reduction in IFN-γ production and increases in levels of IL-4 and IL-10 when comparing groups with and without helminth infection.

Example 2 Listeria Vectors are Capable of Driving a Th1 T-Cell Immune Response Despite Helminth Infection-Mediated Suppression of Th1 T-Cell Immune Responses

Despite systemic biasing toward Th2, as evidenced by a reduced IFN-γ response (FIG. 3) and an increase in IL-4 and IL-10 production (FIGS. 4 and 5, respectively), antigen-specific production of IFN-γ remains unchanged (FIG. 6), indicating this vaccine can produce a functional cell-mediated immune response in the presence of a Th2 environment. This observation suggests that Listeria vector vaccines are capable of driving vaccine-specific immune responses in helminth-infected populations. Further, Listeria vectors should be considered in the development of new generation HIV-1, malaria or TB vaccines to be administered to populations in sub-Saharan Africa where helminth infection is highly prevalent.

Example 3 Administration of a Listeria Vector-HIV-1 Gag Vaccine to S. Mansoni-Infected Mice Drives Significant Immune Responses to HIV-1 Gag CTL and T Helper Epitopes

Both a single i.p. vaccination with 0.2 LD50 of Lm-gag or a prime-boost vaccination protocol with 0.1 LD50 of Lm-gag elicits significant immune responses to HIV-1 gag CTL and T helper epitopes similar to the immune responses in non-S. mansoni-infected mice vaccinated with a prime-boost vaccination protocol with 0.1 LD50 of Lm-gag (FIG. 7).

In addition, oral administration of 100 LD50 but not 10 LD50 of Lm-gag in a prime-boost protocol elicited immune responses to gag-helper (but not gag-CTL) similar to the response elicited in i.p. Lm-gag-vaccinated mice and in oral Lm-gag-vaccinated mice that were not infected with S. mansoni (FIG. 8).

All groups demonstrated strong immune responses to conA (positive control) and no groups demonstrated immune response to medium or an irrelevant antigen (FIG. 8). In addition, mice vaccinated in a prime-boost protocol with Lm-E7 (comprising a Human Papilloma Virus E7 antigen instead of HIV-gag) did not demonstrate an immune response upon re-stimulation with gag-CTL or gag-helper, as expected (FIG. 9).

Therefore, administration of a Listeria vector-HIV-1 gag vaccine to mice chronically infected with the helminth parasite Schistosoma mansoni, drives significant immune responses to HIV-1 gag CTL and T helper epitopes as is further demonstrated below. This observation suggests that Listeria vector vaccines are capable of driving vaccine-specific immune responses in helminth-infected populations. This opens up the possibility of using Listeria vectors to develop new generation HIV-1, malaria or TB vaccines to be administered to populations in sub-Saharan Africa where helminth infection is highly prevalent.

TABLE 1 Statistical analysis. P-values of the vaccination strategies in the Schisto-infected mouse. gag-CTL gag-helper 0.2 Lm-gag (P) 0.54 0.63 0.1 Lm-gag (P + B) 0.48 0.12 0.2 Lm-gag (P + B) 0.75 0.32

Example 4 Listeria-Vector HIV Vaccines Function in the Context of Helminth Infection

As shown in FIG. 11, Listeria vector HIV-1 vaccine induces antigen-specific vaccine responses toward immunodominant CTL (FIG. 11A) and helper (FIG. 11B) epitopes during chronic helminth infection. Splenocytes were unresponsive to media and the irrelevant peptide (NP) for all groups, however, all mice responded to the positive control conA. Data is inclusive of three independent experiments and the total numbers of animals per group (5-19) are shown (FIG. 11, top left). When comparing the 2 responsive groups (Lm-gag±Schistosomiasis), no significant difference was observed.

Varying the vaccine dose and regimen does not alter the vaccine response to the immunodominant epitope (FIG. 12). For vaccination of animals with chronic Schistosomiasis, the vaccine dose was lowered to 0.1 LD₅₀ (noted as 0.1) or the schedule was altered to eliminate the boost, resulting in a prime-only vaccine strategy (noted as P, for prime only). No significant differences were observed when comparing the response to the CTL epitope among the responsive (non-control) groups.

Example 5 Responses of Effector Cells, Part of the Cell-Mediated Immune Response, are Durable and Unaltered by Pre-Existing Chronic Helminth Infection

Several months after the last vaccination, responses to the immunodominant epitope by the effector CTL cells (FIG. 13A), does not differ between in response to chronic helminth infection. Mice were sacrificed at various times post last vaccination and responses of uninfected or schistosome-infected mice to immunodominant CTL (FIG. 13A) and helper (FIG. 13B) epitopes were analyzed. Within the effector cell responses to the immunodominant CTL epitope (FIG. 13A), no significant differences were found when comparing each time point±Schistosomiasis, indicating the effector cell response to the vaccine is unchanged over time between the groups. For Th1 responses to the helper epitope (FIG. 13B), there are differences when comparing±Schistosomiasis at each time point, but these differences are not relevant to a functional vaccine memory response.

Example 6 Antigen-Specific CD8+ T Cells are Generated in the Presence of Schistosome Infection and Persist for Several Months at Levels Comparable to Uninfected

To verify the IFN-gamma responses seen in the ELISpot results arise from antigen-specific CD8+ T cells, splenocytes were analyzed by flow cytometry for molecular specificity of the TCR to vaccine epitopes presented by the MHC molecule. Briefly, splenocytes were stained with an anti-CD8 antibody and gag-tetramer and live cells were acquired and analyzed for tetramer positive staining within the CD8+ population (FIG. 14). No significant differences were found when comparing between groups within a given time point, however, differences were observed within the same group when comparing the two different time points.

Example 7 Listeria HIV-1 Vaccine Induces Immunological Memory

Splenocytes were analyzed by flow cytometry for immunological memory (FIG. 15). Briefly, splenocytes were stained with gag-tetramer and anti-CD8, anti-CD62L and anti-CD197 antibodies. Live cells were acquired and analyzed for central memory (CD62L+CD197+), effector memory (CD62L−CD197−), and molecular specificity (CD8+tetramer+). Since CD44 wasn't used as a marker, the effector memory compartment also contains effectors cells and therefore, isn't plotted with these results. However, all tetramer+ cells at 14 wplv were central memory. Central memory T cells are increased several months post vaccination, at which time there is a difference in the schistosome-infected group.

Example 8 Listeria HIV-1 Vaccine Induces Functional Effector Cells in a Th2 Environment

To assay for effector cell function, an in vivo CTL assay was performed. Briefly, one million target cells (pulsed with specific or irrelevant peptide, stained green or violet, respectively) were injected intravenously into vaccinated animals (FIG. 16A). After overnight in vivo killing, splenocytes were collected, analyzed by flow cytometry for target recovery and gag-specific killing was calculated (FIG. 16B). No significant difference was observed between Lm-gag vaccinated groups with and without chronic Schistosomiasis, indicating the vaccine response is as effective in helminth-infected mice as the uninfected mice.

Example 9 Established Listeria HIV-1 Vaccine Responses are Altered by Subsequent Schistosome Infection

Having shown that immune responses are unaltered by pre-existing helminth infection, it was important to determine if vaccine responses would be altered if the helminth infection occurred after vaccination. To address this, the timeline of the experiment was altered to vaccinate prior to chronic helminth infection (FIG. 17A). Mice were sacrificed at various times post schistosome infection and responses to immunodominant CTL (FIG. 17B) and helper (FIG. 17C) epitopes were analyzed. Although responses to helper peptides remain unchanged, vaccination prior to schistosome infection causes CTL responses to diminish as the immune system shifts to a Th2 bias. However, vaccine responses by the schistosome-infected mice are restored after a second boost and/or praziquantel treatment of the helminth infection. Further, the Listeria vector vaccine generates a memory response.

While certain features of the invention have been illustrated and described herein, many modifications, substitutions, changes, and equivalents will now occur to those of ordinary skill in the art. It is, therefore, to be understood that the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications and changes as fall within the true spirit of the invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of inducing a Th1 immune response in a subject having a parasitic infection, the method comprising the step of administering to said subject a therapeutically effective dose of a Listeria vaccine vector, wherein the Listeria vaccine vector expresses and secretes an antigen fused to an additional immunogenic polypeptide or a signal sequence thereof, wherein said antigen is an infectious disease antigen, and wherein said administering produces a Th1 cell-mediated immune response in said parasite infected subject.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said additional polypeptide is a Listeriolysin O (LLO) polypeptide, an ActA polypeptide, or a PEST sequence.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said subject is human.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein said antigen is an HIV antigen, a malaria antigen, or a tuberculosis antigen.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein said antigen elicits an immune response to HIV-1 gag cytotoxic T lymphocyte or to HIV-1 gag T helper epitopes.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein said parasite is a helminth, or a protozoan parasite.
 7. The method of claim 6 wherein said helminth is Schistosoma mansoni.
 8. The method of claim 6, wherein said protozoan parasite is malaria, leishmania, toxoplasma.
 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of administering a booster vaccination.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein said booster vaccination comprises a DNA vaccine encoding said antigen fused to an additional immunogenic polypeptide or a signal sequence thereof, a recombinant polypeptide comprising said antigen fused to an additional immunogenic polypeptide or a signal sequence thereof, a viral vector encoding said antigen fused to an additional immunogenic polypeptide or a signal sequence thereof or a live recombinant Listeria vaccine vector.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein said response is a therapeutic immune response or a prophylactic immune response.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein said response is a cytotoxic T-cell response or a memory T-cell response.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein said Listeria vaccine vector is a recombinant auxotrophic dal/dat mutant Listeria strain.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein said immune response is against an infectious disease in said subject.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein said infectious disease is amebiasis, an HIV infection, a malaria infection, a leishmania infection, a trichuris infection, or a tuberculosis infection.
 16. The method of claim 14, wherein said immune response against said infectious disease results in treatment, suppression, or inhibition of said infectious disease. 